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that belong to the same step in the hierarchical ladder are of the same de-
gree of specificity and have all of them at least one marker — one compo-
nent of meaning in common. They constitute a series where the relation-
ship between the members is essentially identical.
Componental analysis is also used in the investigation of the semantic
structure of synonyms. There is always a certain component of meaning
which makes one member of the synonymic set different from any other
member of the same set. Thus, though
brave, courageous, fearless, auda-
cious,
etc. are all of them traditionally cited as making up a set of syn-
onymic words, each member of the set has a component of meaning not to
be found in any other member of this set. In a number of cases this seman-
tic component may be hard to define, nevertheless intuitively it is felt by
all native speakers. For instance, that is how the difference in the meaning
components of the words
like, enjoy, appreciate,
etc. is described. Ana-
lysing the difficulty of finding an adequate translation for
John appreci-
ates classical music; he doesn't appreciate rock
the author argues that
“...
appreciate
is not quite the same as
enjoy
or
like
or
admire
or
take an
interest in
though quite
1
a number of semantic components making up
their meaning is identical.
To appreciate
is to be attuned to the real virtue
X is presupposed to have and
not to appreciate
is to fail to be attuned. It is
not to deny that X has virtues. In short,
appreciate
seems to presuppose in
the object qualities deserving admiration in a way that
like, admire,
and so
on do not."
Componental analysis is currently combined with other linguistic pro-
cedures used for the investigation of meaning. For example, contrastive
analysis supplemented by componental analysis yields very good results as
one can clearly see the lack of one-to-one correspondence not only be-
tween the semantic structure of correlated words (the number and types of
meaning) but also the difference in the seemingly identical and correlated
meanings of contrasted words.
For example, the correlated meanings of the Russian word
толстый
and the English words
thick, stout, buxom
though they all denote broadly
speaking the same property (of great or specified depth between opposite
surfaces) are not semantically identical because the Russian word
тол-
стый
is used to describe both humans and objects indiscriminately (cf.,
толстая женщина, (книга),
the English adjective
thick
does not contain
the semantic component
human.
Conversely
stout
in this meaning does
not contain the component
object
(cf.
a thick book
but
a stout man).
The
English adjective
buxom
possesses in addition to
human
the sex compo-
nent, and namely,
female
which is not to be found in either the English
stout
or in the Russian
толстый.
It can be inferred from the above that
this analysis into the components
animate / inanimate, human male / fe-
male
reveals the difference in the comparable meanings of correlated
words of two different languages — Russian and English — and also the
difference in the meaning of synonyms within the English language.
The procedure of componental analysis is also combined with the se-
mantic analysis through collocability or co-occurrence as the components
of the lexical (or the grammatical) meaning may be singled out
257
by the co-occurrence analysis. It is assumed that certain words may co-
occur in a sentence, others may not. The co-occurrence of one word with
another may be treated as a clue to the criterial feature of the concept de-
noted by the word. Thus, for example, if one learns that
a puffin flies,
one
can assume that
a puffin
is animate and is probably a bird or an insect.
A close inspection of words with which the prepositions occur brings
out the components of their meaning. Thus, e.g.,
down the stairs
is admit-
ted
*down the day
is not;
during the day
is admitted but
*during the
stairs
is not. We may infer that time feature is to be found in the preposi-
tion
during
but not in the meaning of
down.
We can also see that some
prepositions
share
the features of space and time because of their regular
co-occurrence with the nouns denoting space and time, e.g.
in the city /
country, in July
/
in
1975, etc.
A completion test in which the subjects have a free choice of verb to
complete the sentences show that, though in the dictionary definitions of a
number of verbs one cannot find any explicit indication of constraints,
which would point at the semantic component, e. g. animate — inanimate,
human — nonhuman, etc., the co-occurrence of the verbs with certain
types of nouns, functioning as subjects, can be viewed as a reliable crite-
rion of such components. For example, in the sentences of the type
The
cows
—
through the fields, The boys — through the fields,
etc. various
verbs were offered
stray, wander, ran, lumber, walk, hurry, stroll,
etc.
The responses of the subjects showed, however, the difference in the com-
ponents of the verb-meanings. For example, for all of them
stroll
is con-
strained to human subjects though no dictionaries include this component
(of human beings)
in the definition of the verb.
The semantic peculiarities of the subcategories within nouns are re-
vealed in their specific co-occurrence. For example, the combination of
nouns with different pronouns specifies the sex of the living being denoted
by the noun. Cf.
The baby drank his bottle
and
The baby drank her
bottle
where the sex-component of the word-meaning can be observed
through the co-occurrence of the noun
baby
with the possessive pronouns
his
or
her.
Componental analysis may be also arrived at through transformational
procedures. It is assumed that sameness / difference of transforms is in-
dicative of sameness / difference in the componental structure of the lexi-
cal unit. The example commonly analysed is the difference in the trans-
forms of the structurally identical lexical units, e.g.
puppydog, bulldog,
lapdog,
etc. The difference in the semantic relationship between the stems
of the compounds and hence the difference in the component of the word-
meaning is demonstrated by the impossibility of the same type of trans-
forms for all these words. Thus,
a puppydog
may be transformed into ‘a
dog (which) is a puppy’,
bull-dog,
however, is not ‘a dog which is a bull’,
neither is a
lapdog ‘
a dog which is a lap’. A
bulldog
may be transformed
into ‘a bulllike dog’, or ‘a dog which looks like a bull’, but
a lapdog
is not
‘a dog like a lap’, etc.
Generally speaking one may assume that practically all classifications
of lexical units implicitly presuppose the application of the the-
258
ory of semantic components. For instance the classification of nouns into
animate — inanimate, human — nonhuman proceeds from the assumption
that there is a common semantic component found in such words as, e.g.,
man, boy, girl,
etc., whereas this semantic component is nonexistent in
other words, e.g.
table, chair, pen,
etc., or
dog, cat, horse,
etc.
Thematic classification of vocabulary units for teaching purposes is in
fact also based on componental analysis.
Thus, e.g., we can observe the common semantic component in the
lexico-semantic group entitled ‘food-stuffs’ and made up of such words as
sugar, pepper, salt, bread,
etc., or the common semantic component
‘non-human living being’ in
cat, lion, dog, tiger,
etc.
All the methods of semantic analysis dis-
cussed above are aimed mainly or exclu-
sively at the investigation of the denotational component of the lexical
meaning.
The analysis of the differences of the connotational meaning is very
hard since the nuances are often slight, difficult to grasp and do not yield
themselves to objective investigation and verification.
An attempt to establish and display these differences was developed by
a group of American psycholinguists.
1
They set up a technique known as
t h e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l by means of which, as they
claim, meaning can be measured. It is perfectly clear, however, that what
semantic differential measures is not word-meaning in any of accepted
senses of the term but the connotational component of meaning or to be
more exact the emotive charge.
Their technique requires the subjects to judge a series of concepts with
respect to a set of bipolar (antonymic) adjective scales. For example, a
concept like
horse
is to be rated as to the degree to which it is good or
bad, fast or slow, strong or weak, etc.
The meaning of the seven divisions is, taking as an example the first of
the scales represented above, from left to right: extremely good, quite
good, slightly good, neither good nor bad (or equally good and bad)
slightly bad, quite bad, extremely bad.
In the diagram above
horse
is described as neither good nor bad, ex-
tremely fast, quite strong, slightly hard, equally happy and sad.
1
C. E. Osgood, G. J. Suci
and
P.H
.
Tannenbaum.
The Measurement of Meaning.
USA, 1965.
259
§ 7. Method of Semantic
Differential
The responses of the subjects produce a semantic profile representing
the emotive charge of the word.
The degree of agreement between the answers is treated as a significant
and reliable factor.
It may be argued that the data with which they deal in these investiga-
tions are essentially subjective. Objectivity, however, concerns the role of
the observer. In other words, each person records his own, entirely subjec-
tive reactions, but by the time the analysis has been completed the result
will represent a kind of semantic average reached by purely objective sta-
tistical methods.
Some conclusions of considerable interest may be drawn from these
experiments.
1. It was found that synesthesia or transfer across sensory modalities is
apparently a common occurrence. For example, terms, such as “dark —
heavy”, “slow — low” tend to be grouped together by a vast majority of
subjects and likewise terms such as “bright — light”, “quick — sharp".
Synesthesia is also commonly observed in regard to colour responses to
music, when, e.g., the hearing of a certain sound induces the visualisation
of a certain colour. As a result physical sensations are felt as connected
with psychological phenomena.
It seems clear from their studies that imagery found in synesthesia is
intimately tied up with language metaphor and that both represent seman-
tic relations. In fact words like
warm, cold, heavy, light, bright, dull
are
universally applied to psychological qualities of temperament or intellect,
e.g. to the quality of a voice as well as to sensations.
Practically everyone speaks of warmth in a voice, narrowness of mind
and smoothness of manners. Logically it would seem that thermal cold in
the skin has nothing to do with coldness heard in a voice or seen in a face.
All languages, however, have words that designate physical-psychological
pairings. This does not imply that the pairings are identical in all lan-
guages. A word denoting a given physical property may develop psycho-
logical meanings that are peculiar to this or that language. There is, how-
ever, an undeniable kinship in the range of meanings. All seem to involve
hightened activity and emotional arousal. No case was discovered in
which the word with the denotational meaning ‘hot’ named a remote, calm
manner.
2. The comparison of responses by native speakers of different lan-
guages to denotationally “equivalent” words revealed that they have dif-
ferent semantic profiles.
It follows that learners of a foreign language can hardly expect that
words will have the same connotation for them as they do for native
speakers. This naturally concerns first of all the emotive charge of the
lexical units. Thus, e.g., it was found that the word
rain
tends to be de-
scribed as
rather happy
by all the subjects of the Southwest Indian groups.
The same word was described as
rather sad
by the overwhelming majority
of English subjects.
The new technique, however, has not been properly developed or ex-
tended to an adequate sample of vocabulary and consequently is of little
use in lexicological analysis.
260
1. Acquaintance with the currently used pro-
cedures of linguistic investigation shows that
contrastive analysis and statistical
analysis are widely used in the preparation of teaching material and
are of primary importance for teachers of English.
2. The selection of this or that particular procedure largely depends on
the goal set before the investigator.
The Immediate Constituent analysis is mainly applied to find out the
derivational structure of lexical units. The distributional and the transfor-
mational procedures are of help in the investigation of sameness / differ-
ence of meaning of words and word-groups and also in the analysis of
word-formation. Componental analysis brings to light the set of sememes
which make up the denotational meaning of lexical units. Componental
analysis may be combined with transformational procedures and also with
the distributional and co-occurrence analysis.
3. The method of semantic differential is regarded as an interesting at-
tempt to get a better insight into the problem of the connotational meaning.
This method, however, has not been as yet properly elaborated and there-
fore is scarcely ever used in applied lexicology.
§ 8. Summary
and Conclusions