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-ish
conveys likeness to the inner, most typical qualities of the object, -y in
most cases conveys likeness to outer shape, form, size of the object. Suf-
fixes
-er,
-ist
both possess the meaning of the agent, but the distinguishing
feature of the suffix -er is that it conveys the meaning of the active doer
(animate or inanimate), whereas
-ist
conveys the meaning of profession
(flutist, biologist)
and followers of principles and beliefs
(socialist, left-
ist)
and thus has the meaning only of human beings. Derivational affixes
semantically may be both mono- and p o l y s e m a n t i c .
Derivational affixes are highly selective and each is applied to a spe-
cific set of bases which is due to the distributional type of meaning found
in all affixes. All affixes are selective as to the structural peculiarities of
bases (their morphemic, derivational, phonological and etymological fea-
tures), some in addition are highly responsive to the lexical-semantic
properties of the bases they are collocated with. For example, the adjecti-
val suffix
-able
is collocated with verbal bases with practically no seman-
tic constraints imposed on them. On the other hand the adjective-forming
suffix
-ful
1
is restricted in its collocability to nominal bases of abstract
meaning
(useful, beautiful),
while its homonym the noun-forming
-ful
2
also collocating with nominal bases chooses bases of concrete meaning
and within this class only nouns which have in their semantic structure a
semantic component ‘container’
(chestful, lungful, bagful).
There is a specific group of morphemes
whose derivational function does not allow
one to refer them unhesitatingly either to the derivational affixes or bases.
In words like
half-done, half-broken, half-eaten
and
ill-fed, ill-housed,
ill-dressed
the ICs
half-
and
i l l -
are given in linguistic literature different
interpretations: they are described both as bases and as derivational pre-
fixes. The comparison of these ICs with the phonetically identical stems in
independent words
i l l
and
half
as used in such phrases as
to speak i l l of
smb, half an hour ago
makes it obvious that in words like
ill-fed, ill-
mannered, half-done
the ICs
i l l -
and
half-
are losing both their semantic
and structural identity with the stems of the independent words. They are
all marked by a different distributional meaning which is clearly revealed
through the difference of their collocability as compared with the colloca-
bility of the stems of the independently functioning words. As to their
lexical meaning they have become more indicative of a generalising mean-
ing of incompleteness and poor quality than the individual meaning proper
to the stems of independent words and thus they function more as affixa-
tional morphemes similar to the prefixes
out-, over-, under-, semi-, mis-
regularly forming whole classes of words. Besides, the high frequency of
these morphemes in the above-mentioned generalised meaning in combi-
nation with the numerous bases built on past participles indicates their
closer ties with derivational affixes than bases. Yet these morphemes re-
tain certain lexical ties with the root-morphemes in the stems of independ-
ent words and that is why are felt as occupying an intermediate position,
1
as morphemes that are changing their
1
See also ‘Word-Structure’, § 3, p. 92. 102
§ 10. Semi-Affixes
class membership regularly functioning as derivational prefixes but still
retaining certain features of root-morphemes. That is why they are some-
times referred to as semi-affixes. To this group we should also refer
well-
and
self- (well-fed, well-done, self-made), -man
in words like
postman,
cabman, chairman, -looking
in words like
foreign-looking, alive-
looking, strange-looking,
etc.
Neither bases nor affixes alone can predict all
the structural and semantic properties of
words the ICs of which they may be. It is the combination of bases and
affixes that makes up derivatives of different structural and semantic
classes. Both bases and affixes due to the distributional meaning they pos-
sess show a high degree of consistency in their selection and are collo-
cated according to a set of rules known as derivational patterns. Aderi -
v a t i o n a l p a t t e r n is a r e g u l a r meaningful arrangement, a
structure that imposes rigid rules on the order and the nature of the deriva-
tional bases and affixes that may be brought together. A pattern is a gen-
eralisation, a scheme indicative of the type of ICs, their order and ar-
rangement which signals the part of speech, the structural and semant ic
peculiarities common to all the individual words for which the pattern
holds true. Hence the derivational patterns
(DP)
may be viewed as classi-
fiers of non-simple words into structural types and within them into se-
mantic sets and subsets. DPs are studied with the help of distributional
analysis at different levels. Patterns of derivative structures are usually
represented in a generalised way in terms of conventional symbols: small
letters
v, n, a, d, пит
stand for the bases which coincide with the stems of
the respective parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, numer-
als;
v
ed
, v
ing
stand for the bases which are the past and present participles
respectively. In words of the
long-fingered
or
sit-inner
type the deriva-
tional bases are represented by bracketed symbols of the parts of speech
making up the corresponding collocations, for example
(a+n)+
+-ed),
(v+d) +
er
.
DPs may represent derivative structure at different levels of generali-
sation:
a)
at the level of structural types specifying only the class membership
of ICs and the direction of motivation, such as
a+-sf -> N, prf- +
+n -> V,
prf- n -> N, n + -sf -> N, n + -sf -> V,
etc. In terms of patterns of this type,
known as structural formulas,
1
all words may be classified into four
classes: suffixal derivatives, e.g.
friendship, glorified, blackness, sky-
ward;
prefixal derivatives, e.g.
rewrite, exboxer, non-smoker, un-
happy,
etc.; conversions, e.g.
a cut, to parrot, to winter,
etc.; compound
words
key-ring, music-lover, wind-driven,
etc. But derivational formulas
are not indicative either of any one lexical-grammatical or lexical class of
words, as, for example, the formula a +
-sf
may equally represent suffixal
nouns as in
blackness, possibility
and verbs, as in
sharpen, widen,
or
adjectives as in
blackish.
b)
derivative structure and hence derivative types of words may be
represented at the level of structural patterns which specify the base
See ‘Word-Group’, § 7, p. 70.
103
§ 1 1 . Derivational Patterns
classes and individual affixes thus indicating the lexical-grammatical and
lexical classes of derivatives within certain structural classes of words.
DPs of this level are based on the mutual interdependence of individual
affixes and base classes and may be viewed in terms of each. The suffixes
refer derivatives to specific parts of speech and lexical subsets as, for ex-
ample,
v + -er -> N
signals that the derivatives built on this pattern are de-
verbal nouns which represent a semantic set of active agents, denoting
both animate and inanimate objects, e.g.
reader, runner, singer,
unlike,
for example, denominal nouns with the underlying pattern
п+ -еr -> N
which stands for agents denoting residents or occupations, e.g.
Londoner,
villager, gardener.
The DP
n+-ish -> A
signals a set of adjectives with
the lexical meaning of resemblance, whereas
a + -ish -> A
signals adjec-
tives meaning a small degree of quality, etc.
c) DPs may be specified as to the lexical-semantic features of both ICs.
DPs of this level specify the semantic constraints imposed upon the set of
derivatives for which the pattern is true and hence the semantic range of
the pattern. For example, the nominal bases in the pattern
n+-ess -> N
are
confined to nouns having in their semantic structures a component ‘a male
animate being’, e.g.
lioness, traitress, stewardess,
etc.; the nominal bases
in
n+-ful
2
-> N
are limited by nouns having a semantic component ‘con-
tainer’, e.g.
lungful, carful, mouthful,
whereas in
n+ -ful
1
-> A
the nomi-
nal bases are confined to nouns of abstract meaning. The same is true of
the pattern
n + -y -> A
which represents different semantic sets of deriva-
tives specified by semantic constraints imposed on both the bases and the
suffix: nominal bases denoting living beings are collocated with the suffix
-y meaning ‘resemblance’, e.g.
birdy, spidery, catty,
etc., but nominal
bases denoting material, parts of the body attract another meaning of the
suffix -y that of ‘considerable amount, size’ resulting in the adjectives like
powdery, grassy, leggy, starry,
etc.
It
follows that derivational patterns may be classified into two types —
structural pattern (see b, above) and structural-semantic pattern (see c).
According to their derivational structure
words fall into two large classes: simple,
non-derived words or simplexes and deriva-
tives or complexes. Complexes are classified according to the type of the
underlying derivational pattern into: derived and compound words. De-
rived words fall into affixational words, which in their turn must be classi-
fied into suffixal and prefixal derivatives, and conversions. Each deriva-
tional type of words is unequally represented in different parts of speech.
Comparing the role each of these structural type of words plays in the
language we can easily perceive that the clue to the correct understanding
of their comparative value lies in a careful consideration of 1) the impor-
tance of each type in the existing word-stock and 2) their frequency value
in actual speech. Of the two factors frequency is by far the most important.
According to the available word counts in different parts of speech, we
find that derived words numerically constitute the largest class of words in
the existing word-stock, derived nouns comprise approximately 67% of
the total number and adjectives about 86%, whereas
104
§ 12. Derivational Types
of Words
compound nouns make about 15% and adjectives only about 4%. Simple
words come to 18% in nouns, i.e. a trifle more than the number of com-
pound words; in adjectives simple words come to approximately 12%.
1
But if we now consider the frequency value of these types of words in ac-
tual speech, we cannot fail to see that simple words occupy a predominant
place in English. According to recent frequency counts, about 60% of the
total number of nouns and 62% of the total number of adjectives in current
use are simple words. Of the total number of adjectives and nouns, derived
words comprise about 38% and 37% respectively while compound words
comprise an insignificant 2% in nouns and 0.2% in adjectives.
2
Thus it is
the simple, non-derived words that constitute the foundation and the back-
bone of the vocabulary and that are of paramount importance in speech. It
should also be mentioned that non-derived words are characterised by a
high degree of collocability and a complex variety of meanings in contrast
with words of other structural types whose semantic structures are much
poorer. Simple words also serve as basic parent forms motivating all types
of derived and compound words. At the same time it should be pointed out
that new words that appear in the vocabulary are mostly words of derived
and compound structure.
Neither the morphemic nor the derivational
structure of the word remains the same but is
subject to various changes in the course of time. Changes in the phonetic
and semantic structure and in the stress pattern of polymorphic words may
bring about a number of changes in the morphemic and derivational struc-
ture. Certain morphemes may become fused together or may be lost alto-
gether. As a result of this process, known as the process of simplification,
radical changes in the structure of the word may take place: root-
morphemes may turn into affixational or semi-affixational morphemes,
polymorphic words may become monomorphic, compound words may be
transformed into derived or even simple words. There is no doubt, for in-
stance, that the Modern English derived noun
friendship
goes back to the
Old English compound
frēōndscipe
in which the component
scipe
was a
root-morpheme and a stem of the independently functioning word. The
present-day English suffixes
-hood, -dom, -like
are also known to have
developed from root-morphemes. The noun
husband
is a simple mono-
morphic word in Modern English, whereas in Old English it was a com-
pound word consisting of two bases built on two stems
hus-bond-a.
Sometimes the spelling of some Modern English words as compared
with their sound-form reflects the changes these words have undergone.
The Modern English word
cupboard
judging by its sound-form ['kAbэd]
is a monomorphic non-motivated simple word. Yet its spelling betrays its
earlier history. It consisted of two bases represented by two monomorphic
stems [kAр] and [bo:d] and was pronounced ['kAp,bod]; it signified
1
Though no figures for verbs are available we have every reason to believe that they
present a similar relation.
2
We may presume that a similar if not a more striking difference is true of verbs, ad-
verbs and all form words.
105
§ 13. Historical Change-
ability of Word-
'a board to put cups on’; nowadays, however, having been structurally
transformed into a simple word, it denotes neither
cup
nor
board
as may
be seen from the phrases like*
boot cupboard, a clothes cupboard.
A
similar course of development is observed in the words
blackguard
['blæg-a:d] traced to ['blæk,ga:d],
handkerchief
['hæŋkэt∫if] that once was
['hænd,kэ:t∫if], etc.
In the process of historical development some word-structures under-
went reinterpretation without radical changes in their phonemic shape;
there are cases when simple root-words came to be understood as derived
consisting of two ICs represented by two individual items, e.g.
beggar,
chauffeur, editor.
The reinterpretation of such words led to the formation
of simple verbs like
to edit, to beg,
etc.
1. There are two levels of approach to the study
of word-structure: the level of morphemic
analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis.
2.
The basic unit of the morphemic level is the morpheme defined as
the smallest indivisible two-facet language unit.
3.
Three types of morphemic segmentability of words are distin-
guished in linguistic literature: complete, conditional and defective. Words
of conditional and defective segmentability are made up of full mor-
phemes and pseudo (quasi) morphemes. The latter do not rise to the status
of full morphemes either for semantic reasons or because of their unique
distribution.
4.
Semantically morphemes fall into root-morphemes and affixational
morphemes (prefixes and suffixes); structurally into free, bound and semi-
free (semi-bound) morphemes.
5.
The structural types of words at the morphemic level are described
in terms of the number and type of their ICs as monomorphic and poly-
morphic words.
6.
Derivational level of analysis aims at finding out the derivative
types of words, the interrelation between them and at finding out how dif-
ferent types of derivatives are constructed.
7.
Derivationally all words form two structural classes: simplexes, i.e.
simple, non-derived words and complexes, or derivatives. Derivatives fall
into: suffixal derivatives, prefixal derivatives, conversions and com-
pounds. The relative importance of each structural type is conditioned by
its frequency value in actual speech and its importance in the existing
word-stock.
Each structural type of complexes shows preference for one or another
part of speech. Within each part of speech derivative structures are charac-
terised by a set of derivational patterns.
8.
The basic elementary units of the derivative structure are: deriva-
tional bases, derivational affixes, derivational patterns.
9.
Derivational bases differ from stems both structurally and semanti-
cally. Derivational bases are built on the following language units: a)
stems of various structure, b) word-forms, c) word-groups or phrases.
Each class and subset of bases has its own range of collocability and
shows peculiar ties with different parts of speech.
106
§ 14. Summary and Conclusions