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words are built on, the study also enables one to understand how new
words appear in the language.
The constituents of the derivative structure are functional units, i.e.
units whose function is to indicate relationship between different classes
of words or differently-behaving words of the same class and to signal the
formation of new words. It follows that derivational functions are proper
to different linguistic units which thus serve as ICs of a derivative. It must
be also noted that the difference between classes of words is signalled by
both the derivative structure of the word, or to be more exact by the stem it
shapes, and by the set of paradigmatic inflections that this structure pre-
supposes. For example, the nominal class of words to which derivatives
like historian, teacher, lobbyist are referred is signalled by both the deriva-
tive structure, i.e. the unity of their ICs history+-ian, teach+ +
-er
lobby +
-ist
shaping the stems of these words — and the nominal set of paradig-
matic inflections which these stems precondition, i.e.
histori-an(O), histo-
rian
(s)
, historian
('s)
, historian
(s’)
.
The class of words like enrich, enlarge
is likewise signalled by their derivative structure (en- + +rich, en-+large)
and the verbal set of paradigmatic inflexions. Hence the paradigmatic sys-
tems of different classes of words have, among their functions, the func-
tion of distinguishing the formal make-up of word classes. It follows that
the paradigmatic system of inflections in cases of meaningful absence of
the 1С which determines the class membership of the motivated stem
functions as the sole indication of its derived nature.
1
A derivational base as a functional unit is de-
fined as the constituent to which a rule of
word-formation is applied. It is the part of the word which establishes
connection with the lexical unit that motivates the derivative and deter-
mines its individual lexical meaning describing the difference between
words in one and the same derivative set, for example the individual lexi-
cal meaning of words like
singer, rebuilder, whitewasher,
etc. which all
denote active doers of action, is signalled by the lexical meaning of the
derivational bases
sing-, rebuild-, whitewash-
which establish connection
with the motivating source verb.
Structurally derivational bases fall into three classes: 1) bases that
c o i n c i d e w i t h m o r p h o l o g i c a l s t e m s of different
degrees of complexity, e.g.
duti
ful,
dutiful
ly;
day-dream, to day-dream,
daydream
er
; 2) bases that coincide w i t h w o r d - f o r m s ; e.g.
pa-
per-
bound
, un
smiling
,
un
known
; 3) bases that coincide w i t h word-
grоups of different degrees of stability, e ,g.
second-rate
ness
,
flat-
waist
ed
, etc.
1. Bases built on stems of different degree of complexity make the
largest ‘and commonest group of components of derivatives of various
classes, e.g.
un
-
button
,
girl
-
ish
;
girlish
-ness,
colour
-
blind
-
ness
,
ex
-
filmstar
, etc. Bases of this class are functionally and semantically distinct
from all kinds of stems. Functionally, the m o r p h o l o g i c a l s t e m
is the part of the word which is the starting point for its forms, it is the
1
See ‘Word-Formation’, § 16, p. 127, 4 № 2775
97
§ 8. Derivational Bases
part which semantically presents a unity of lexical and functional mean-
ings thus predicting the entire grammatical paradigm. The stem remains
unchanged throughout all word-forms, it keeps them together preserving
the identity cf the word. Thus the stems in the above-given words are
ex-
filmstar, unbutton
which remain unchanged in all the forms of each word
as, e.g.,
ex-filmstar
(O)
, ex-filmstar
(s)
, ex-filmstar
(’s)
, ex-filmstar
(s)
.
Stems
are characterised by a phonetic identity with the word-form that habitually
represents the word as a whole (the common case singular, the infinitive,
etc.).
A d e r i v a t i o n a l b a s e unlike a stem does not predict’ the
part of speech of the derivative, it only outlines a possible range and na-
ture of the second IC and it is only the unity of both that determines the
lexical-grammatical class of the derivative. A derivational base is the start-
ing-point for d i f f e r e n t words and its derivational potential outlines
the type and scope of existing words and new creations. The nominal base
for example,
hand-
gives rise to nouns, e.g.
hand-rail, hand-bag, short-
hand, handful,
to adjectives, e.g.
handy,
or verbs, e.g.
to hand.
Similarly
the base
rich-
may be one of the ICs of the noun
richness,
the adjective
gold-rich,
or the verb
to enrich.
Semantically the stem stands for the whole semantic structure of the
word, it represents all it s lexical meanings. A base, semantically, is also
different in that it represents, as a rule, only o n e meaning of the source
word or its stem. The derivatives
glassful
and
glassy,
e.g., though con-
nected with the stem of the same source word are built on different deriva-
tional bases,, as
glassful
is the result of the application of the word-
formation rule to the meaning of the source word ‘drinking vessel or its
contents’, whereas
glassy
— to the meaning ‘hard, transparent, easily-
broken substance’. Derivatives
fiery, fire-place, to fire, fire-escape, fire-
arm,
a l l have bases built on the stem of the same source noun
fire,
but
the words like
fire-escape fire-engine
and
fire-alarm
are semantically
motivated by the meaning ‘destructive burning’, the words
firearms,
ceasefire, (to) fire
are motivated by another meaning ’shooting’, whereas
the word
fiery
(as in
fiery speech, eyes)
is motivated by the meaning
’strong emotion, excited feeling’. The same difference can be exemplified
by the words
starlet, starry, starlike, starless
which are all motivated by
the derivational base meaning ‘a heavenly body seen in the night as distant
point of light’, as compared to
stardom, starlet, to star
motivated by the
base meaning ‘a person famous as actor, singer’ though both represent the
same morphological stem of the word
star.
Stems that serve as this class of bases may themselves be different
morphemically and derivationally thus forming derivational bases of dif-
ferent degrees of complexity which affects the range and scope of their
collocability and their derivational capacity. Derivationally the stems may
be:
a) s i m p l e , which consist of only one, semantically nonmotivated
constituent. The most characteristic feature of simple stems in Modern
English is the phonetic and graphic identity with the root-morpheme and
the word-form that habitually represents the word as a whole.
98
As has been mentioned elsewhere
l
simple stems may be both monomor-
phic units and morphemic sequences made up of bound and pseudo-
morphemes, hence morphemically segmentable stems in such words as
pocket, motion, retain, horrible,
etc. should be regarded as derivation-
ally simple.
b) d e r i v e d stems are semantically and structurally motivated,
and are the results of the application of word-formation rules; it follows
that they are as a rule binary, i.e. made up of two ICs, and polymorphic,
e.g. the derived stem of the word
girlish
is understood on the basis of de-
rivative relations between
girl
and
girlish;
the derived stem of a greater
complexity
girlishness
is based on the derivative relations between
girlish
and girlishness. This is also seen in
to weekend, to daydream
which are
derived from the nouns
week-end
and
day-dream
and are motivated by
the derivative relations between the noun and the verb.
2
Derived stems, however, are not necessarily polymorphic.
It especially concerns derivatives with a zero IC, i.e. meaningful ab-
sence of the derivational means in which case the distinction between the
stem of the source word and the motivated stem of the derivative is sig-
nalled by the difference in paradigmatic sets of inflections which they
take.
3
For example, the stem of the verb
(to) parrot,
though it consists of one
overt constituent and is a one-morpheme word, should be considered de-
rived as it is felt by a native speaker as structurally and semantically de-
pendent on the simple stem of the noun
parrot
and because it conveys a
r e g u l a r relationship between these two classes of words — verbs
and nouns
4
. The same is true of the stems in such words as
(to) winter, a
cut, a drive,
etc.
c) c o m p o u n d stems are always binary and semantically moti-
vated, but unlike the derived stems both ICs of compound stems are stems
themselves. The derivative structure and morphemic composition of each
IC may be of different degree of complexity, for example, the compound
stem of the noun
match-box
consists of two simple stems, the stem of the
noun
letter-writer
— of one simple and one derived stem, and the stem
aircraft-carrier — of a compound and derived stem.
The structural complexity of the derivational bases built on derived and
compound stems is a heavy constraint imposed on the collocability and
semantic freedom of these bases and consequently on their derivative po-
tential. Compare, for example, the derivational capacity of the simple stem
girl,
which can give rise to
girly, girlish, girlless, girl-friend,
and the
limited capacity of girlish which gives only
girlishness
and
girlishly.
2. The second class of derivational bases is made up of word-forms. It
is obvious that word-forms functioning as parts of the word lose all syn-
tactic properties they possess in independent use. This class of bases is
confined to verbal word-forms — the present and the past participles —
which regularly function as ICs of non-simple adjectives, adverbs and
nouns. The collocability of this class of derivational bases is confined to
1
See ‘Word-Structure’, § 7, p. 96.
2
See ‘Word-Formation’, §§ 16,'p. 127.
3
See ‘Word-Structure’, § 7, p. 96.
4
See ‘Word-Formation’, § 18, p. 131.
99
just a few derivational affixes such as the prefix
un-,
the suffix
-ly, in
e.g.
unnamed, unknown, unwrapped,
etc.,
smilingly, knowingly,
etc. The
derivational bases in question may be also collocated with other bases
which coincide only with nominal and adjectival stems, e.g.
mockingbird,
dancing-girl, ice-bound, time-consuming, ocean-going, easy-going,
etc.
3. The third class of derivational bases is made up of word-groups.
Free word-groups make up the greater part of this class of bases. Like
word-forms, word-groups serving as derivational bases lose their morpho-
logical and syntactic properties proper to them as self-contained lexical
units. Bases of this class also allow of a rather limited range of collocabil-
ity, they are most active with derivational affixes in the class of adjectives
and nouns, e.g. in words like
blue-eyed, long-fingered, old-worldish,
dogooder, second-rateness,
etc.
Thus, we may conclude that each class of bases, though it makes use
of one of the structural units of vocabulary, is distinct from it and differs
from it both in form and meaning. The greater the degree of structural
complexity of the base the more limited its derivative potential.
Derivational affixes are ICs of numerous de-
rivatives in all parts of speech. Derivational
affixes differ from affixational morphemes in their function within the
word, in their distribution and in their meaning. Derivational affixes pos-
sess two basic functions: 1) that of s t e m - b u i l d i n g which is
common to all affixational morphemes: derivational and non-derivational.
It is the function of shaping a morphemic sequence, or a word-form or a
phrase into the part of the word capable of taking a set of grammatical in-
flections and is conditioned by the part-of-speech meaning these mor-
phemes possess;
1
2) that of w o r d - b u i l d i n g which is the function
of repatterning a derivational base and building a lexical unit of a struc-
tural and semantic type different from the one represented by the source
unit. The repatterning results in either transferring it into the stem of an-
other part of speech or transferring it into another subset within the same
part of speech. For example, the d e r i v a t i o n a l s u f f i x
-ness
applied to bases of different classes shapes d e r i v e d stems thus mak-
ing new words. In
kindliness, girlishness,
etc. it repatterns the adjectival
stems
kindly-, girlish-,
in
second-rate-ness, allatonceness
it turns the
phrases
second rate, all at once
into stems and consequently forms new
nouns. In most cases derivational affixes perform b o t h functions si-
multaneously shaping derived stems and marking the relationship between
different classes of lexical items. However, certain derivational affixes
may in individual sets of words perform only one function that of stem-
building. The derivational suffix
-ic
for example performs
both
functions
in words like
historic, economic, classic
as it is applied to bases
history-,
economy-, class-
and forms stems of words of a different part of speech.
But the same suffix
-ic
in
public, comic, music
performs only its stem-
building function shaping in this case a s i m p l e
1
See ‘Semasiology’, § 17, p. 25,
100
§ 9. Derivational Affixes
stem.
1
The same is true of the suffix
-ous
in such words as
joyous, coura-
geous, famous
as compared with
anxious, conscious, curious.
Stem-
building is the common function shared by both derivational and non-
derivational morphemes, but with the non-derivational morphemes it is the
only structural function. Besides, the non-derivational affixes shape
o n l y simple stems, for example, the morpheme
-id
in
stupid, rapid,
acid, humid;
the morpheme
-ish
in
publish, distinguish, languish.
It fol-
lows that non-derivational morphemes are not applied to stems, but only to
root-morphemes or morpheme sequences.
Semantically derivational affixes are characterised by a unity of part-of-
speech meaning, lexical meaning and other types of morphemic meanings
2
unlike non-derivational morphemes which, as a rule, lack the lexical type
of meaning. It is true that the part-of-speech meaning is proper in different
degrees to the derivational suffixes and prefixes. It stands out clearly in
derivational suffixes but it is less evident in prefixes; some prefixes lack it
altogether, in others it is very vague and in this case it finds expression in
the fact that these prefixes tend to function in either nominal or verbal
parts of speech. Prefixes like
en-, un-, de-,
out-, be-,
unmistakably pos-
sess the part-of-speech meaning and function as verb classifiers when they
make an independent IC of the derivative, e.g.
deice, unhook, enslave;
derivational prefixes
a-, un-
possess the adjectival part-of-speech meaning,
e.g.
unhesitating, unknown, unkind,
etc.,
amoral, asynthetic, asym-
metric,
etc. In prefixes
со-, under-, mis-
this type of meaning is vague but
they tend to be active in one part of speech only:’
со-
in nominal parts of
speech (i.e. nouns and adjectives), e.g.
copilot, co-star, co-president;
mis-
and
under-
are largely verbal prefixes, e.g.
underwork, underdo,
underfeed,
etc. The prefix
over-
evidently lacks the part-of-speech mean-
ing and is freely used both for verbs and adjectives, the same may be said
about
non-, pre-, post-.
The lexical meaning in derivational affixes also
has its peculiarities and may be viewed at different levels.
3
1)
T h e l e x i c a l (denotational) m e a n i n g of a g e n e r ic
t y p e proper mostly not to an individual affix but to a set
of
affixes,
forming a semantic subset such as, for example, the meaning of resem-
blance found in suffixes
-ish, -like, -y, -ly (spiderish, spiderlike, spi-
dery);
the causative meaning proper to the prefix
en- (enslave, enrich),
the suffixes
–ise
(
-ize), -(i)fy (brutalise, formalise, beautify, simplify,
etc.); the meaning of absence conveyed by the prefix
un-
and the suffix
-
less;
the meaning of abstract quality conveyed by the suffixes
-ness, -ity,
etc.
2)
On the other hand derivational affixes possess another type of lexi-
cal meaning — an i n d i v i d u a l m e a n i n g shared
by no
other
affix and thus distinguishing this particular affix from all other members,
of the same semantic group. For example, suffixes
-ish, -like,
-y all have
the meaning of resemblance, but
-like
conveys an overall resemblance,
1
See ‘Word-Structure’, § 8, p. 97.
2
See ‘Semasiology’, §§ 13-16, pp. 23-25.
3
See also ‘Methods . . . , § § 3, 4, p. 245, 246.
101