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words by this term we understand the position which lexical units occupy
or may occupy in the text or in the flow of speech. It is readily observed
that a certain component of the word-meaning is described when the word
is identified distributionally. For example, in the sentence
The boy —
home
the missing word is easily identified as a verb — The boy went,
came, ran, etc. home. Thus, we see that the component of meaning that is
distributionally identified is actually the part-of-speech meaning but not
the individual lexical meaning of the word under analysis. It is assumed
that sameness / difference in distribution is indicative of sameness / differ-
ence in part-of-speech meaning.
It is also observed that in a number of cases words have different lexi-
cal meanings in different distributional patterns. Compare, e.g., the lexical
meaning of the verb to treat in the following: to treat somebody well,
kindly, etc. — ‘to act or behave towards’ where the verb is followed by
a
noun + an adverb
and to treat somebody to ice-cream, champagne, etc. —
‘to supply with food, drink, entertainment, etc. at one’s own expence’
where the verb is followed by
a noun+the preposition
to
+ another noun.
Compare also the meaning of the adjective i l l in different distributional
structures, e.g. ill look, ill luck, ill health, etc. (
ill
+
N
— ‘bad’) and
fall ill,
be i l l,
etc. (
V
+
ill
— ’sick’).
The interdependence of distribution and meaning can be also observed
at the level of word-groups. It is only the distribution of otherwise com-
pletely identical lexical units that accounts for the difference in the mean-
ing of water tap and tap water. Thus, as far as words are concerned the
meaning by distribution may be defined as an abstraction on the syntag-
matic level.
It should also be noted that not only words in word-groups but also
whole word-groups may acquire a certain denotational meaning due to
certain distributional pattern to which this particular meaning is habitually
attached. For example, habitually the word preceding ago denotes a certain
period of time (an hour, a month, a century, etc. ago) and the whole word-
group denotes a certain temporal unit. In this particular distributional pat-
tern any word is bound to acquire an additional lexical meaning of a cer-
tain period of time, e.g. a grief ago (E. Cummings), three cigarettes ago
(A. Christie), etc. The words a grief and a cigarette are understood as indi-
cating a certain period of time and the word-groups as denoting temporal
units. This is also true of the meaning of the most unusual word-groups or
sentences, e.g. griefs of joy (E. Cummings) (cf.
days of joy, nights of
grief,
etc.),
to deify one’s razorblade
(E. Cummings) (cf.
to sharpen the
knife
).
Distributional pattern as such seems to possess a component of mean-
ing not to be found in individual words making up the word-group or the
sentence. Thus, the meaning ‘make somebody do smth by means of some-
thing’ cannot be traced back to the lexical meanings of the individual
words in ‘to coax somebody into accepting the suggestion’. The distribu-
tional pattern itself seems to impart this meaning to the whole irrespective
of the meaning of the verb used in this structure, i.e. in the pattern
V+N+
into
+V
ing
verbs of widely different lexical meaning may be used.
One can say, e.g., to kiss somebody into doing smth, to
247
flatter somebody into doing smth, to beat somebody into doing something,
etc.; in all these word-groups one finds the meaning ‘to make somebody
do something’ which is actually imparted by the distributional pattern.
The same set of lexical items can mean different things in different syn-
tactic arrangements as illustrated by: John thought he had left: Mary alone,
Mary alone thought he had left John. Had he alone thought Mary left John?
As can be inferred from the above distributional analysis is mainly ap-
plied by the linguist to find out s a m e n e s s or d i f f e r e n c e of
meaning. It is assumed that the meaning of any lexical unit may be viewed
as made up by the lexical meaning of its components and by the meaning
of the pattern of their arrangement, i.e. their distributional meaning. This
may perhaps be best illustrated by the semantic analysis of polymorphic
words. The word singer, e.g., has the meaning of ‘one
who sings
or is sing-
ing’ not only due to the lexical meaning of the stem
sing
- and the deriva-
tional morpheme -
er
(= active doer), but also because of the meaning of
their distributional pattern. A different pattern of arrangement of the same
morphemes *
ersing
changes the whole into a meaningless string of
sounds.
1
Distribution of stems in a compound makes part of the lexical meaning
of the compound word. Compare, e. g. , different lexical meanings of the
words formed by the same stems bird and cage in bird-cage and cage-bird.
It is also assumed that productivity largely depends on the distribu-
tional meaning of the lexical units. Distributional meaning of the lexical
units accounts for the possibility of making up and understanding a lexical
item that has never been heard or used before but whose distributional pat-
tern is familiar to the speaker and the hearer. Thus, though such words as
kissable, hypermagical, smiler
(She is a charming smiler), etc. cannot be
found in any dictionary their meaning is easily understood on the analogy
with other words having the same distributional pattern, e. g-
(v + -able- -
> A
as in
readable
,
eatable
and
kissable
).
From the discussion of the distributional analysis above it should not be
inferred that difference in distribution is always indicative of the difference
in meaning and conversely that sameness of distribution is an absolutely
reliable criterion of sameness of meaning.
It was pointed out above that as a rule distribution of stems in a com-
pound word p r e d i c t s a certain component of meaning as the stem
that stands first is understood as modifying the one that follows (cf. bird-
cage and cage-bird). In certain cases, however, the meaning or to be more
exact one of the word-meanings may be structured differently. Firstly, in
morphologically non-motivated words distributional structure is not corre-
lated with certain meaning. For instance, in the words apple-sauce, plum-
sauce, etc. we actually see that the item sauce-is modified by the stems
ap-
ple-, plum-,
etc., hence these words may be semantically interpreted as
‘kind of sauce made of apples, plums, etc.’ One of the meanings of the
word
apple-sauce
— ‘nonsense’, ‘insincere
1
See ‘Semasiology’, § 19, p. 27. ‘Word-Formation’, § 27, p. 144, 248
flattery’, however, is in no way connected with the distributional structure
of stems. This is observed in all non-motivated words. Secondly, it is
common knowledge that words used in identical distributional patterns
may have different meanings. Compare, e.g., the meaning of the verb
to
move
in the pattern
to move
+
N
: 1. cause to change position (e.g. move the
chair, the piano, etc.), 2. arouse, work on the feelings of smb. (e.g. to move
smb. deeply). In the cases of this type distributional analysis traditionally
understood as the analysis on the level of different parts of speech, as an
abstraction on the syntagmatic level is of little help in the analysis of
sameness or difference of lexical meaning.
Distributional analysis, however, is not as a rule confined to the analy-
sis on the part-of-speech level or in general on the grammatical level but is
extended to the lexical level.
The essential difference between grammar and lexis is that grammar
deals with an obligatory choice between a comparatively small and limited
number of possibilities, e.g. between the
man
and
men
depending on the
form of the verb
to be,
cf.
The man is walking, The men are walking
where the selection of the singular number excludes the selection of the
plural number. Lexis accounts for the much wider possibilities of choice
between, say,
man, soldier, fireman
and so on. Lexis is thus said to be a
matter of choice between open sets of items while grammar is one between
closed systems.
1
The possibilities of choice between lexical items are not
limitless however. Lexical items containing certain semantic components
are usually observed only in certain positions. In phrases such as
all the
sun long, a grief ago
and
farmyards away
the deviation consists of nouns
sun, grief, farm yards
in a position where normally only members of a
limited list of words appear (in this case nouns of linear measurements
such as
inches, feet, miles).
The difference between the normal lexical
paradigm and the ad hoc paradigm can be represented as follows:
inches
feet yards,
etc.
)
away
(normal)
farmyards
griefs, etc.
}
away
(deviant)
Cf. also “half an hour and ten thousand miles ago” (Arthur C. Clark). “She is
feeling miles better today.” (Nancy Milford)
Di str i bu ti on d efin ed a s th e occu r r en ce o f a l ex i ca l un i t r el at i ve
to other lexical units can be interpreted as c o - o c c u r r e n c e of lexical
items and the two terms can be viewed as synonyms.
I t foll ows th at by th e t er m d i s t r i b u t i o n we u n d er stan d
t h e a p t n e s s o f a w o r d i n o n e o f i t s m e a n i n g s
t o c o l l o c a t e or t o c o - o c c u r w i t h a c e r t a i n
group, or c e r t a i n g r o u p s of w o r d s h a v i n g s o m e
c o m m o n s e m a n t i c c o m p o n e n t . In this case distribution may
be treated on the level of semantic classes or subclasses of lexical units.
1
See ‘Semasiology’, §§ 5, 6, pp. 18, 19.
249
Thus, e.g., it is common practice to subdivide animate nouns into nouns
denoting human beings and non-humans (animals, birds, etc.). Inanimate
nouns are usually subdivided into concrete and abstract (cf., e.g.,
table,
book, flower
and
joy,, idea, relation)
which may be further classified into
lexico-semantic groups, i.e. groups of words joined together by a common
concept, e.g. nouns denoting pleasurable emotions
(joy, delight, rapture,
etc.), nouns denoting mental aptitude
(cleverness, brightness, shrewd-
ness,
etc.). We observe that the verb
to move
followed by the nouns denot-
ing inanimate objects (move +
N
in
) as
a
rule have the meaning of ‘cause to
change position’; when, however, this verb is followed by the nouns denot-
ing human beings
(move + N
anim pers
)
it will usually have another meaning,
i.e. ‘arouse, work on the feelings of. In other cases the classification of
nouns into animate / inanimate may be insufficient for the semantic analy-
sis, and it may be necessary to single out different lexico-semantic groups
as, e.g., in the case of the adjective
blind.
Any collocation of this adjective
with a noun denoting a living being (animate)
(
blind
+N
an
)
will bring out
the meaning ‘without the power to see’
(blind man, cat.
etc.).
Blind
fol-
lowed by a noun denoting inanimate objects, or abstract concepts may have
different meanings depending on the lexico-semantic group the noun be-
longs to. Thus,
blind
will have the meaning ‘reckless, thoughtless, etc’
when combined with nouns denoting emotions
(blind passion, love, fury,
etc.) and the meaning ‘hard to discern, to see’ in collocation with nouns
denoting written or typed signs
(blind handwriting, blind type,
etc.).
In the analysis of word-formation pattern the investigation on the level
of lexico-semantic groups is commonly used to find out the word-
meaning, the part of speech, the lexical restrictions of the stems, etc. For
example, the analysis of the derivational pattern
n+ish -> A
shows that the
suffix
-ish
is practically never combined with the noun-stems which de-
note units of time, units of space, etc.
(*hourish, *mileish,
etc.). The
overwhelming majority of adjectives in
-ish
are formed from the noun-
stems denoting living beings
(wolfish, clownish, boyish,
etc.).
It follows that distribution may be viewed as the place of a lexical item
relative to other lexical items on the level of semantic classes and sub-
classes.
The analysis of lexical collocability in word-groups is widely applied
for different purposes: to find out typical, most commonly used colloca-
tions in modern English, to investigate the possibility / impossibility of
certain types of meaning in certain types of collocations, and so on.
It stands to reason that certain lexical items rarely if ever co-occur be-
cause of extra-linguistic factors. There are no restrictions inherent in the
grammar or vocabulary of the English language that would make co-
occurrence of the participle
flying
with the noun
rhinoceros
impossible,
yet we may be reasonably certain that the two words are unlikely to co-
occur.
What we describe as meaning by collocation or meaning by co-
occurrence is actually a blend of extra-linguistic and intra-linguistic com-
ponents of meaning.
250
One or the other component may prevail. For instance, one may argue
that the meaning of the adjective
good
is different in
good doctor, good
mother, good milkman,
etc. because we know that
a good doctor
is ‘a
doctor who gives his patient adequate medical care and treatment’,
whereas
good mother
is ‘a mother who takes care of the needs of her chil-
dren and cares for them adequately’. Here naturally it is the extralinguistic
factors that account for the difference in meaning.
Of greatest importance for language teaching, however, is the investi-
gation of lexical restrictions in collocability that are of purely intralinguis-
tic nature and cannot be accounted for by logical considerations. This can
be perhaps best illustrated by comparing the collocability of correlated
words in different languages. In the English language, e.g., the verb
to
seize may be combined with nouns denoting different kinds of emotions:
I
was seised with joy, grief,
etc., whereas in the Russian language one can
say
на меня напала тоска, отчаяние, сомнение,
etc. but the collocations
напала радость, надежда
are impossible, that is to say the Russian verb
cannot be combined with nouns denoting pleasurable emotions.
The results of the co-occurrence or distributional analysis may be of
great help to teachers in preparation of teaching material.
To illustrate the point under consideration it is sufficient to discuss the
experiment the goal of which was to find out the semantic peculiarities of
the verb
to giggle. Giggle
refers to a type of laughter —
to
giggle is usu-
ally defined as ‘t o laugh in a nervous manner’. There is nothing in the dic-
tionary definition to indicate a very important peculiarity of the word-
meaning, i.e. that giggling is habitually associated with women. A comple-
tion test carried out by a group of English linguists yielded interesting re-
sults.
The sentences to be completed were of the type:
The man
—
with ob-
vious pleasure, The woman — with obvious pleasure,
etc.
The informants were to fill in the blanks
with
either the verb
to laugh
or
to giggle
and were presented with a choice of subjects male and female.
A clear preference was shown for
women giggling
and
men laughing
with obvious pleasure. The analysis of the informants’ responses also
showed that a man may
giggle drunkenly
or
nervously,
but not
happily
or
politely.
In the case of women, however, of whom giggling is more
characteristic it appears that all collocations —
giggle drunkenly, nerv-
ously, happily, politely
— are equally acceptable. It may be inferred from
the above that the meaning by co-occurrence is an inherent part and an
essential component of the word-meaning.
Transformational analysis in lexicological
investigations may be defined as re-
patterning of various distributional structures
in order to discover difference or sameness of meaning of practically iden-
tical distributional patterns.
As distributional patterns are in a number of cases polysemantic, trans-
formational procedures are of help not only in the analysis of semantic
sameness / difference of the lexical units under investigation
251
§ 5. Transformational
Analysis