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Lecture 1
INTRODUCTION
§ 1. Phonetics as a science
The word ‘phonetics’
comes from the Greek word
fonetika
meaning
‘the science of the voice’. Nowadays it means the study of the way humans
make, transmit, and receive speech sounds. Phonetics is an independent
branch of linguistics like lexicology or grammar. These linguistic sciences
study language from three different points of view. Lexicology deals with
the language vocabulary, the origin and development of words, their mean-
ing and word building. Grammar defines the rules governing the modifica-
tion of words and the combination of words into sentences.
Phonetics
is a basic branch of linguistics, which deals with speech
sounds and studies the outer form of the language. Neither linguistic the-
ory nor linguistic practice can exist without phonetics, because language
is a system and its components are inseparably connected.
The connection of phonetics with grammar is exercised through or-
thography and intonation. Thus for example, the system of reading rules
helps to pronounce singular and plural forms of nouns correctly (
man —
men, foot — feet
). The use of the necessary nuclear tone helps to distin-
guish between different types of sentences. It’s especially important in
colloquial speech where one and the same sentence may be understood as
a statement when pronounced with the falling tone (
He came
\
home.
) or
a question when pronounced with the rising tone (
He came
/
home?
).
The connection of phonetics with lexicology is exercised through pro-
nunciation and word-stress. For instance, some corresponding forms of
verbs and nouns are homographs identical in spelling. They may be distin-
guished with the help of pronunciation (
wind
[wınd] —
to wind
[waınd]),
word-stress ('
object — to ob
'
ject
), or the combinative use of word-stress and
pronunciation (
increase
['ınkrıs] —
to increase
[in'kri:z]).
The connection of phonetics with stylistics is exercised through into-
national components or graphical expressive means. For example, repeti-
11
tion of words serves as the basis of rhythm and rhyme; capitalization or
italics highlightning underline special prominence of information:
Look to left and look to right
,
Note what traffic is in sight
.
Note
,
too
,
which light can be seen
:
The Red
,
the Amber
,
or the Green
.
Children
,
keep from dangerous play
And THINK before you cross today
.
Phonetics as a science examines the inventory, structure and func-
tions of speech sounds. On the expression level phoneticians investigate
the sound system of the language: phonemes and their allophones, word
stress, syllabic structure and intonation. On the content level phoneticians
are interested in the analysis and characteristics of phonetic phenomena
and their role in a language. Thus phonetics occupies itself with the study
of the ways of sound organization into a system of units, variations and
functions of these units in all types and styles of spoken language.
Phonetics is the kind of a science that may have application in various
fields of knowledge besides linguistics. Phonetics is also connected with
non-linguistic sciences which have educational or social value, like meth-
ods of language teaching, logics, history, psychology, sociology. The study
of the structure of sound system is indispensable from sciences studying
different aspects of speech production, like acoustics, physiology. The con-
nection of phonetics with other sciences is easily observed by the example
of its branches. Thus, acoustic phonetics is related to physics and mathe-
matics; articulatory phonetics — to physiology, anatomy, and anthropolo-
gy; historical phonetics — to general history and archaeology; functional
phonetics — to communication theory and statistics.
Phonetics is also a part of some interdisciplinary subjects like socio-
linguistics, psycholinguistics, mathematical linguistics, etc. Each of these
sciences can have theoretical or practical application in the sphere of
phonetic investigation.
§ 2. Process of oral speech production
Human speech is the result of a highly complicated series of events
that can be divided into 6 stages: psychological, physiological, physical/
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acoustic, reception, transmission, linguistic interpretation. They are inter-
connected and constitute two parts of the speech act.
I. The first part of the speech act
contains the stages made by the
speaker. It includes the following:
1) the psychological stage concerns the formation of the concept in
the brain of a speaker;
2) when the message is formed, it is transmitted along the nervous
system to the speech organs which produce particular speech
sounds within the physiological stage;
3) the movements of the speech apparatus disturb the air and pro-
duce sound waves during the acoustic stage.
II. The second part of the speech act
includes the stages made by the
listener, because any communication requires a listener as well as a speaker:
1) the sound waves are percepted by the listener’s ear within the
reception stage;
2) the spoken message is transmitted through the nervous system to
the listener’s brain during the transmission stage;
3) the information conveyed gets its linguistic interpretation.
The analysis of the process of oral speech production makes it pos-
sible to define four levels of speech production: articulatory, acoustic,
auditory and functional. They are inseparable in the real process of com-
munication. But each of them can be singled out in order to characterize
different aspects of sound phenomena which in their turn are necessary
to define the main branches of pnonetics: articulatory, acoustic, auditory
and functional.
§ 3. Aspects of phonetics
The linguistic analysis of the sound matter of any language helps to
distribute all the sound phenomena into the following aspects: articula-
tory, acoustic, auditory and functional.
I.
The
articulatory aspect
comprises all the movements and posi-
tions of the speech organs necessary to pronounce a speech sound. Speech
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organs have different functions and thus can be divided into four
groups:
1
) The power (respiratory) mechanism supplies the energy in the
form of air pressure and regulates the force of air stream. It in-
cludes the following speech organs: the diaphragm, the lungs, the
bronchi, the windpipe (trachea), the glottis and the supra-glottal
cavities, the larynx, the mouth cavity, the nasal cavity.
2) The vibration mechanism functions as a vibrator when producing voice.
It consists of the vocal cords (voice box), situated in the larynx.
3) The resonator mechanism consists of the speech organs which
function as principal resonators. These are the pharynx, the larynx,
the mouth and nasal cavities.
4) The obstruction mechanism consists of the tongue (the blade, the
tip, the front, the back/dorsum), the lips, the teeth, the soft palate
with the uvula, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge. These speech
organs form different types of obstructions.
II.
The
acoustic aspect
studies sound waves. It is the way in which
the air vibrates between the speaker’s mouth and the listener’s ear.
There may be different types of vibrations which affect the tone of the
voice. The basic vibrations of the vocal cords over their whole length
produce the fundamental tone of voice. The simultaneous vibrations of
parts of the vocal cords produce partial tones (overtones).
The number of vibrations per second is called frequency. Frequency
of basic vibrations of the vocal cords is called the fundamental frequency
which is very important in phonetic investigation. It determines the pitch
of the voice and forms the acoustic basis of speech melody.
III.
The
auditory (sound-perception) aspect
is a physiological and
psychological mechanism. It combines the process of hearing with the
process of discriminating sounds. People can perceive the range from 16
to 20,000 Hz with a
difference in 3 Hz. The human ear transforms vibra-
tions of the air into nervous commands and transmits them to the brain.
This enables the listener discriminate the quality, pitch, loudness, and
length of sounds and identify the sounds.
IV.
The
functional (linguistic) aspect
is concerned with the linguis-
tic function of individual sounds and segments of speech. From the func-
14
tional point of view all sound phenomena of any language present a clear-
cut system of interdependent units: phonemes, syllables, stress, and into-
nation. These phonetic phenomena have no meaning of their own. Their
linguistic function is to constitute and distinguish larger meaningful units,
such as morphemes, words, phrases, etc.
§ 4. Units and components of phonetic system
The phonetic system of a language is a set of units arranged in an
orderly way to replace each other in a given framework. Phonetics in
general is divided in two sub-systems: segmental phonetics which is con-
cerned with minimal segments of speech and suprasegmental phonetics
which deals with larger speech units.
Segmental units of phonetics include phonemes and their allophones
as the representation of individual sounds. Suprasegmental units are syl-
lables, word-stress, and prosodic (intonational) phenomena (pith, stress,
tempo, rhythm, pauses). Both segmental and suprasegmental units are
used to form words, phrases and utterances in connected speech.
Thus it’s possible to define
phonetics
as a branch of linguistics that
studies speech sounds in the broad sense, comprising segmental sounds,
suprasegmental units and prosodic phenomena.
The phonetic system of any language comprises 4 components: pho-
nemic, syllabic, accentual and intonational.
The first is the phonemic component. It is the basic component rep-
resented by the system of segmental phonemes of a language existing in
the material form of their allophones. It may have manifestations in:
— the system of phonemes as discrete isolated units;
— the distribution of allophones of different phonemes;
— the methods of joining speech sounds.
The second component is the syllabic structure of words. It has two
manifestations which are inseparable from each other: syllable formation
and syllable division.
The third component is the accentual structure of words when pro-
nounced in isolation. Its main manifestations are: