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20
E.g.,
cap
[k
h
æp
h
] / [k
h
æp]
— the loss of plosion in the final phoneme [p] doesn’t bring any
change of meaning.
3. The phoneme is also an abstract and generalized unit, which performs
the recognitive function. The phoneme serves to distinguish and un-
derstand the meaning, because the use of the right allophone in the
certain phonetic context helps the listener to understand the message
and thus facilitates normal recognition.
E.g.,
take it — tape it
— the difference in two phrases is understood by two different pho-
nemes.
This materialistic conception of the phoneme is regarded as the most
suitable for the purpose of language teaching in modern linguistics.
§ 2. Phonemes, allophones, phones:
difference and relationships
The sounds of language should be described and classified from the
point of view of their functional significance. The same sounds can have
different interpretations in different phonetic contexts.
For example, the sound [t] may be opposed to [d] in words like
t
en—
d
en, sea
t
—see
d
. But in the expressions
le
t
us — le
t
them
[t] remains the
realization of one and the same sound though having certain pronuncia-
tion peculiarities.
In order to tell the difference linguists use two separate terms: pho-
neme and allophone. The term ‘phoneme’ means sounds of speech used
in their contrastive sense whereas the term ‘allophone’ is used for non-
contrastive sounds representing variants of a definite phoneme.
It’s been stated before that the
phoneme
is a minimal abstract linguis-
tic unit opposed to other phonemes in order to distinguish the meaning of
morphemes and words.
As a unit of language any phoneme possesses a bundle of distinctive
features that makes it functionally different from all other phonemes and
forms the invariant of the phoneme. The
articulatory features characteristic
21
of the invariant are called
distinctive (relevant)
. They can be extracted
when opposing to each other in the same phonetic context phonemes with
a difference in one articulatory feature which brings changes in meaning.
For example, all the allophones of the phoneme [d] are occlusive,
forelingual and lenis, but when occlusive articulation is changed for con-
strictive one, [d] is replaced by [z] (
breed — breeze, deal — zeal
). In
words
port —
court
,
both phonemes [p] and [k] have the same features of
occlusive, fortis consonants, but labial [p] is opposed to lingual [k].
The articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning
are called
non-distinctive (irrelevant)
. They are observed within the al-
lophones of a certain phoneme. For example, the opposition of an aspi-
rated [k
h
] to a non-aspirated one in the same phonetic context does not
distinguish meaning (
back
).
There are two types of non-distinctive features:
— incidental (redundant) features (aspiration of voiceless plosives,
presence of voice in voiced consonants, length of vowels, etc.);
— indispensable (concomitant) features (tenseness of long monoph-
thongs, checked character of stressed short vowels, lip rounding
of back vowels, etc.).
Allophones
are the possible variants of the same phoneme, which
never occur in similar phonetic contexts. They are not used to differenti-
ate meaning and largely depend on the phonetic context, in which neigh-
bouring phonemes predict the use of this or that allophone.
There are two types of allophones: principal and subsidiary. If an al-
lophone retains the typical articulatory characteristics of the phoneme, it
is called a principal allophone. But when certain changes happen in the
articulation of an allophone under the influence of the phonetic environ-
ment, an allophone is called subsidiary.
For example, an English phoneme [d] presents a principal variant when
it is taken in isolation or in words like
door, darn, down
, and retains its
typical characteristics of an occlusive, forelingual, apical, alveolar, lenis
consonant. But the same phoneme [d] may undergo changes under the influ-
ence of other phonemes, and thus present subsidiary variants. It may be:
— slightly palatalized before front vowels and sonorant [j] (
deal,
day, dew
);
22
— pronounced without any plosion before another stop (
bedtime,
good dog
);
— pronounced with nasal plosion before [n], [m] (
sudden
,
admit
) or
lateral plosion before [l] (
idle
);
— post-alveolar followed by [r] (
dry, dream
);
— dental followed by
[θ], [ð] (
good thing, lead the way
);
— labialized followed by [w] (
dweller
).
Still all the allophones retain the invariant of phoneme [d] and pos-
sess its three basic articulatory features: they are forelingual lenis stops.
The actual realization of allophones in the speech chain is exercised
through
phones
. These units are not predicted by phonetic context but
modified by phonostylistic, dialectal and individual variations. That’s
why no speech sounds are absolutely alike.
The relationships between the phoneme as an ideal combination of
articulatory features, the allophone as its variant and the phone as a con-
crete speech sound may be illustrated in the following scheme:
stylistic variation
phoneme
à
allophone
à
dialectal variation
à
phone
individual variation
§ 3. Meaning of phonemes and allophones
in teaching practice
Speaking about phonemes and allophones from the point of view of
language teaching it should be mentioned that allophonic differences of
the same phoneme are not observed by native speakers whereas allo-
phonic modifications of different phonemes completely change the mean-
ing of morphemes, words and sentences.
Anyone who studies a foreign language naturally makes mistakes in
the articulation of sounds. Pronunciation errors are classified into phono-
logical and phonetic.
If an allophone is replaced by an allophone of a different phoneme the
mistake is called phonological, because it affects the meaning of words. For
23
example, the change of a vowel phoneme of the word
beat
into a more
open, more advanced and not diphthongized one creates another word
bit
:
[bi:t] vs. [bıt].
If an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by another allophone of
the same phoneme the mistake is called phonetic, because the meaning of
the word does not change. For instance, the absence of aspiration in the
word
pit
does not create any meaningful variations:
[p
h
ıt] / [pıt].
Language teachers should guide the students in order not to admit
phonological mistakes. Phonetic mistakes are possible; nevertheless lan-
guage learners are advised not to make them, because in this case the
degree of foreign accent may be an obstacle to listener’s perception.
Transcription also plays a very important role in teaching and learn-
ing a foreign language. According to the International Phonetic Associa-
tion there exists an accepted inventory of symbols to represent speech
sounds separately from their orthographic notation. For example, the
symbol [g] represents a lenis back lingual plosive consonant in words like
gate
and it does not coincide with the orthographic sign ‘
g
’ of the word
gin
, which is pronounced as [ʤ].
Transcription is the system of phonetic notation organized as a set of
symbols representing speech sounds. There are two types of transcription:
— the first is broad (phonemic) transcription, which provides special
symbols for all the phonemes of a language;
— the second is narrow (allophonic) transcription, which suggests
special symbols adding some information about the articulatory
activity of particular allophonic features.
For example, the words
Kate
,
take
,
hill
may get two types of notation:
— a usual broad transcription, like [keıt], [teık], [hıl];
— a narrow transcription, indicating additional articulatory para-
meters, like aspiration [k
h
eıt], loss of plosion [teık
o
], the dark
shade of the sonorant [l] [hıl].
The broad type of transcription may be used not only in words but in
word combinations as well. For instance, it’s possible to note:
24
— linking [r] in the expression
car owner
[karǩunǩ];
— reciprocal influence of sounds [n] and [ð] in the expression
in the
yard
[ın↔ðǩ ja:d].
The broad transcription is mainly used for practical experience while
the narrow one serves the purposes of research work. In practical teaching
the most important variants of allophones should be mentioned to teach
the students correct pronunciation.
§ 4. Main views of the nature of phoneme
The phoneme is a basic linguistic unit and this fact is acknowledged
by all linguists. But not all of them describe it in the same way. There are
several schools of phonology, which express different views of the nature
of phoneme.
I.
The psychological view regards the phoneme as an ideal ‘mental
image’ that the speaker bears in mind when pronouncing allophonic vari-
ants. The speech realization of a target phoneme deviates from the ideal
because of the individual peculiarities of the speaker’s articulating organs
and the influence of neighbouring sounds. This view was originated by
the founder of the phoneme theory, the Russian linguist of Polish origin
I.A. Baudauin de Courtenay and shared by E.D. Sapir, Alf. Sommerfelt,
M. Tatham. But the American linguist L. Bloomfield, the English phone-
tician D. Jones and Soviet linguists rejected this view on the basis that it’s
impossible to establish ideal sounds which don’t exist in reality.
II.
The functional view doesn’t take into consideration the actually
pronounced speech sounds and regards the phoneme as the minimal sound
unit by which meanings can be differentiated. According to it only dis-
tinctive features of the phoneme make sense, while non-distinctive ones
should be extracted. For example, the words
ladder
and
latter
are said to
differ only in one feature of the third sound: lenis or fortis characteristics.
This view is shared by the linguists of Prague Linguistic Circle N.S. Tru-
betzkoy, R. Jacobson, L. Bloomfield, and others.
III.
The abstract view regards phonemes as units which are indepen-
dent of speech sounds. The acoustic and physiological properties are as-
sociated with purely abstract phonemes. It is stated that there exist archi-