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b)
a double stress, with a primary stress on the first component and
a
weaker, secondary stress on the second component, e.g.
´blood-`vessel,
´mad-`doctor
— ‘a psychiatrist’,
´
washing-ma
`
chine, etc. These two
stress patterns are the commonest among compound words and in many
cases they acquire a contrasting force distinguishing compound words
from word-groups, especially when the arrangement and order of ICs par-
allel the word-order and the distributional pattern of a phrase, thus a
‘
greenhouse
— ‘a glass house for cultivating delicate plants’ is contrasted
to a ‘
green ‘house
— ‘a house that is painted green’; ‘
dancing-girl
— ‘a
dancer’ to a ‘
dancing ‘girl
— ‘a girl who is dancing’; a
´mad-`doctor
—
‘apsychiatrist’ to ‘mad ‘doctor — ‘a doctor who is mad’. The significance
of these stress patterns is nowhere so evident as in nominal compounds
built on the
n+n
derivational pattern in which the arrangement and order
of the stems fail to distinguish a compound word from a phrase.
c)
It is not infrequent, however, for both ICs to have level stress as in,
e.g., ‘
arm-'chair, ‘icy-'cold, ‘grass-'green,
etc.
The significance of the stress pattern by itself should not be overesti-
mated though, as it cannot be an overall criterion and cannot always serve
as a sufficient clue to draw a line of distinction between compound words
and phrases. This mostly refers to level stress pattern. In most cases the
level stress pattern is accompanied by other structural and graphic indica-
tions of inseparability.
G r a p h i c a l l y most compounds have two types of spelling —
they are spelt either solidly or with a hyphen. Both types of spelling when
accompanied by structural and phonetic peculiarities serve as a sufficient
indication of inseparability of compound words in contradistinction to
phrases. It is true that hyphenated spelling by itself may be sometimes
misleading, as it may be used in word-groups to emphasise their phrase-
ological character as in e.g.
daughter-in-law, man-of-war, brother-in-
arms
or in longer combinations of words to indicate the semantic unity of
a string of words used attributively as, e.g.,
I-know-what-you're-going-
to-say expression, we-are-in-the-know jargon, the young-must-be-
right attitude.
The two types of spelling typical of compounds, however,
are not rigidly observed and there are numerous fluctuations between solid
or hyphenated spelling on the one hand and spelling with a break between
the components on the other, especially in nominal compounds of the
n+n
type. The spelling of these compounds varies from author to author and
from dictionary to dictionary. For example, the words
war-path, war-
time, money-lender
are spelt both with a hyphen and solidly;
blood-
poisoning, money-order, wave-length, war-ship
— with a hyphen and
with a break;
underfoot, insofar, underhand
— solidly and with a
break.
1
It is noteworthy that new compounds of this type tend to solid or
hyphenated spelling. This inconsistency of spelling in compounds, often
accompanied by a level stress pattern (equally typical of word-groups)
makes the problem of distinguishing between compound
1
The spelling is given according to
Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary,
1956 and
H. С Wyld.
The Universal English Dictionary,
1952.
142
words (of the
n+n
type in particular) and word-groups especially difficult.
In this connection it should be stressed that Modern English nouns (in
the Common Case, Sg.) as has been universally recognised possess an at-
tributive function in which they are regularly used to form numerous
nominal phrases as, e.g.
peace years, stone steps, government office,
etc.
Such variable nominal -phrases are semantically fully derivable from the
meanings of the two nouns and are based on the homogeneous attributive
semantic relations unlike compound words. This system of nominal
phrases exists side by side with the specific and numerous class of nominal
compounds which as a rule carry an additional semantic component not
found in phrases.
It is also important to stress that these two classes of vocabulary units
— compound words and free phrases — are not only opposed but also
stand in close correlative relations to each other.
1
S e m a n t i c a l l y compound words are
generally motivated units. The meaning of
the compound is first of all derived from the’ combined lexical meanings
of its components. The semantic peculiarity of the derivational bases and
the semantic difference between the base and the stem on which the latter
is built is most obvious in compound words. Compound words with a
common second or first component can serve as illustrations. The stem of
the word
board
is polysemantic and its multiple meanings serve as differ-
ent derivational bases, each with its own selective range for the semantic
features of the other component, each forming a separate set of compound
words, based on ’specific derivative relations. Thus the base
board
mean-
ing ‘a flat piece of wood square or oblong’ makes a set of compounds
chess-board, notice-board, key-board, diving-board, foot-board, sign-
board;
compounds
paste-board, carboard
are built on the base meaning
‘thick, stiff paper’; the base
board
-meaning ‘an authorised body of men’,
forms compounds
school-board, board-room.
The same can be observed
in words built on the polysemantic stem of the word
foot.
For example, the
base
foot-
in
foot-print, foot-pump, foothold, foot-bath, foot-wear
has
the meaning of ‘the terminal part of the leg’, in
foot-note, foot-lights,
foot-stone
the base
foot-
has the meaning of ‘the lower part’, and in
foot-
high, foot-wide, footrule
— ‘measure of length’. It is obvious from the
above-given examples that the meanings of the bases of compound words
are interdependent and that the - choice of each is delimited as in variable
word-groups by the nature of the other IC of the word. It thus may well be
said that the combination of bases serves as a kind of minimal inner con-
text distinguishing the particular individual lexical meaning of each com-
ponent. In this connection we should also remember the significance of the
differential meaning found in both components which becomes especially
obvious in a set of compounds containing identical bases.
2
1
See ‘Word-Composition’, § 34, p. 151,
2
See ‘Semasiology’, § 15, p. 24.
143
§ 26. Meaning
The lexical meanings of the bases alone, im-
portant as they are, do not make the meaning
of the compound word. T h e m e a n -
i n g of t h e c o m p o u n d is derived not only from the combined
lexical meanings of its components, but also from the meaning signalled
by the patterns of the order and arrangement of i t s ICs.
A mere change in the order of bases with the same lexical meanings
brings about a drastic change in the lexical meaning of the compound or
destroys it altogether. As an illustration let us compare
life-boat
— ‘a boat
of special construction for saving lives from wrecks or along the coast’
with
boat-life
— ‘life on board the ship’; a
fruit-market
— ‘market where
fruit is sold’ with
market-fruit
— ‘fruit designed for selling’;
board-
school
with
school-board,
etc. Thus the structural or distributional pattern
in compound words carries a certain meaning of its own which is largely
independent of the actual lexical meaning of their ICs. It follows that t h e
l e x i c a l m e a n i n g of a c o m p o u n d is d e r i v e d
f r o m t h e c o m b i n e d l e x i c a l m e a n i n g s of i t s
compon e n t s a n d t h e s t r u c t u r a l m e a n i n g of i t s
d i s t r i b u t i o n a l p a t t e r n .
1
The structural meaning of the derivational pattern of compounds may
be abstracted and described through the interrelation of its ICs. In analys-
ing compound adjectives, e.g.
duty-bound, wind-driven, mud-stained,
we observe that their underlying pattern
n+Ven
conveys the generalised
meaning of instrumental or agentive relations which can be interpreted as
‘done by’ or ‘with the help of something’; the lexical meanings of the
bases supply the individual action performed and the actual doer of the
action or objects with the help of which the action is done —
duty-bound
may be interpreted as 'bound by duty’,
wind-driven
as ‘driven by wind’,
mud-stained
as ’stained with mud’.
T h e d e r i v a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s in compounds m a y be
m o n o s e m a n t i c as in the above-given examples, a n d
p o l y s e m a n t i c .
2
If we take the pattern
п+а -> A
which underlies
such compound adjectives as
snow-white, world-wide, air-sick,
we shall
see that the pattern has two different meanings which may be interpreted:
a) through semantic relations of comparison between the components as in
world-wide
— ‘wide as the world’,
snow-white
— ‘as white as snow’,
etc. and b) through various relations of adverbial type (circumstantial) as
in
road-weary
— ‘weary of the road’,
colour-blind
— ‘blind to colours’,
etc. The structural pattern
n+n
->
N
that underlies compound nouns is also
polysemantic and conveys different semantic relations such as relations of
purpose, e.g.
bookshelf, bed-room,
relations of resemblance, e.g.
needle-
fish, bowler-hat,
instrumental or agentive relations, e.g.
steamboat,
windmill, sunrise, dogbite.
The polysemy of the structure often leads to a certain freedom of inter-
pretation of the semantic relations between the components and conse-
quently to the polysemy of the compound. For example, it is equally
1
See also ‘Word-Groups’, § 5, p. 69.
2
See also ‘Word-Groups’, § 8, p. 71.
144
§ 27. Structural Meaning
of the Pattern
correct to interpret the compound noun
toy-man
as ‘a toy having the shape
of a man’ or ‘a man who makes toys, a toy-maker’, the compound
clock-
tower may likewise be understood as a ‘tower with a clock fitted in’ or ‘a
tower that serves as or is at the same time a clock’.
It follows that the meaning of a compound is
made up of the combined lexical meaning of
the bases and the structural meaning of the
pattern. T h e s e m a n t i c c e n t r e of the compound is t h e
l e x i c a l m e a n i n g of t h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t modified
and restricted by the meaning of the first. The semantic centres of com-
pounds and the semantic relations embedded in the structural patterns refer
compound words to certain lexico-semantic groups and semantic sets
within them as, for example: 1) compound words denoting action de-
scribed as to its agent, e.g.
sunrise, earthquake, handshake,
2) com-
pounds denoting action described as to its time or place, e.g.
day-flight,
street-fight, 3) compounds denoting individual objects designed for some
goal, e.g.
bird-cage, table-cloth, diving-suit,
4) compounds denoting ob-
jects that are parts of the whole, e.g.
shirt-collar, eye-ball, 5)
compounds
denoting active doers, e.g.
book-reader, shoe-maker, globe-trotter.
The lexical meanings of both components are closely fused together to
create a new semantic unit with a new meaning which is not merely addi-
tive but dominates the individual meanings of the bases and is character-
ised by some additional semantic component not found in any of the bases.
For example,
a hand-bag
is essentially ‘a bag, designed to be carried in
the hand’, but it is also ‘a woman’s bag to keep money, papers, face-
powder and the like’;
a time-bomb
is ‘a bomb designed to explode at
some time’, but also ‘after being dropped or placed in position’. The bulk
of compound words are monosemantic and motivated but motivation in
compounds like in all derivatives varies in degree. There are compounds
that are c o m p l e t e l y m o t i v a t e d like
sky-blue, foot-pump,
tea-taster.
M o t i v a t i o n in compound words m a y be p a r t i a1,
but again the degree will vary. Compound words a
hand-bag, a flower-
bed, handcuffs, a castle-builder
are all only partially motivated, but still
the degree of transparency of their meanings is different: in a hand-bag it
is the highest as it is essentially ‘a bag’, whereas
handcuffs
retain only a
resemblance to cuffs and in fact are ‘metal rings placed round the wrists of
a prisoner’;
a flower-bed
is neither ‘a piece of furniture’ nor ‘a base on
which smth rests’ but a ‘garden plot where flowers grow’; a castle-builder
is not a ‘builder’ as the second component suggests but ‘a day-dreamer,
one who builds castles in the air’.
There are compounds that l a c k m o t i v a t i o n a l t o g e t h e r ,
i.e. the native speaker doesn't see any obvious connection between the
word-meaning, the lexical meanings of the bases and the meaning of the
pattern, consequently, he cannot deduce the lexical meaning, of the word,
for example, words like
eye-wash
— ’something said or done to deceive a
person’,
fiddlesticks
— ‘nonsense, rubbish’, an
eye-servant — ‘
a servant
who attends to his duty only when watched’, a
night-cap
— ‘a drink taken
before going to bed at night’ all lack motivation. Lack of motivation in
compound words may be often due to the transferred
145
§ 28. The Meaning of Compounds.
Motivation
meanings of bases or of the whole word as in
a slow-coach
— ‘a person
who acts slowly’
(colloq.),
a sweet-tooth
— ‘one who likes sweet food
and drink’
(colloq.).
Such words often acquire a new connotational mean-
ing (usually non-neutral) not proper to either of their components. Lack of
motivation may be often due to unexpected semantic relations embedded
in the compound.
Sometimes the motivated and the non-motivated meanings of the same
word are so far apart that they are felt as two homonymous words, e.g.
a
night-cap:
1) ‘a cap worn in bed at night’ and 2) ‘a drink taken before go-
ing to bed at night’
(colloq.);
eye-wash:
1) ‘a liquid for washing the eyes’
and 2) ’something said or done to deceive somebody’
(colloq.);
an eye-
opener:
1) ‘enlightening or surprising circumstance’
(colloq.)
and 2) ‘a
drink of liquor taken early in the day’ (U.S.)
Compound words may be described from dif-
ferent points of view and consequently may be
classified according to different principles. They may be viewed from the
point of view: 1) of general relationship and degree of semantic independ-
ence of components; 2) of the parts of speech compound words represent;
3) of the means of composition used to link the two ICs together; 4) of the
type of ICs that are brought together to form a compound; 5) of the cor-
relative relations with the system of free word-groups.
Each type of compound words based on the above-mentioned princi-
ples should also be described from the point of view of the degree of its
potential power, i.e. its productivity, its relevancy to the system of Modern
English compounds. This description must aim at finding and setting a sys-
tem of ordered structural and semantic rules for productive types of com-
pound words on analogy with which an infinite number of new compounds
constantly appear in the language.
From the point of view of degree of semantic
independence there are two types of relation-
ship between the ICs of compound words that
are generally recognised in linguistic literature: the relations of coordina-
tion and subordination, and accordingly compound words fall into two
classes: c o o r d i n a t i v e c o m p o u n d s (often termed copula-
tive or additive) and s u b o r d i n a t i v e (often termed determinative).
In c o o r d i n a t i v e compounds the two ICs are semantically
equally important as in
fighter-bomber oak-tree, girl-friend, Anglo-
American.
The constituent bases belong to the same class and most often
to the same semantic group. Coordinative compounds make up a compara-
tively small group of words. Coordinative compounds fall into three
groups:
a)
R e d u p l i c a t i v e compounds which are made up by the
repetition of the same base as in
goody-goody, fifty-fifty, hush-hush,
pooh- pooh.
They are all only partially motivated.
b)
Compounds formed by joining t h e p h o n i c a l l y v a r i -
a t e d r h y t h m i c t w i n f o r m s which either alliterate with
the same initial consonant but vary the vowels as in
chit-chat,
zig-zag,
sing-song,
or rhyme by varying the initial consonants as in
clap-trap, a
walkle-
146
§ 29. Classification
§ 30. Relations between
the ICs of Compounds