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Productive Types of Compound Nouns
Table 3
Free Phrases
Compound Nouns
Compounds
Proper
Derivational
Compounds
Pattern
Verbal
—
Nominal Phrases
1. the reducer of
prices to reduce 2. the reducing of prices
prices 3. the reduction of prices to shake 4. the
shake of hands hands
1) price-reducer 2)
price-reducing 3)
price-reduction 4)
hand-shake
—
[n + (v + -er)] [n + (v +
-ing)] [n + (v + -tion/-
ment)] [n +
(v
+
conver-
sion)]
Nominal Phrases
1) a tray for
ashes 2) the neck of the bottle 3)
a house in the country 4) a ship
run by steam 5) the doctor is a
woman 6) a fish resembling a
sword
1) ash-tray 2) bot-
tle-neck 3) coun-
try-house 4) steam-
ship 5) woman-
doctor 6) sword-
fish
—
[n’ + n
1
]
Verb
—
Adverb Phrases
to break down to cast
away to run away
a break-down a
castaway a run-
away
[(v + adv) +
conversion]
pattern
l(v + adv) + conversion].
The pattern correlates with free phrases
V
+
Adv
and with all phrasal verbs of different degree of stability. The pat-
tern is polysemantic and reflects the manifold semantic relations typical of
conversion pairs.
The system of productive types of compound nouns is summarised in
Table 3.
The actual process of building compound
words may take different forms: 1) Compound
words as a rule are built s p o n t a n e o u s l y according to productive
distributional formulas of the given period. Formulas productive at one
time may lose their productivity at another period. Thus at one time the
process of building verbs by compounding adverbial and verbal stems was
productive, and numerous compound verbs like, e.g.
outgrow,
offset,
inlay
(adv + v),
were formed. The structure ceased to be productive and
today practically no verbs are built in this way.
2) Compounds may be the r e s u l t of a g r a d u a l p r o c e s s
of s e m a n t i c i s o l a t i o n and structural fusion of free word-
groups. Such compounds as
forget-me-not
— ‘a small plant with blue
flowers’;
bull’s-eye
— ‘the centre of a target; a kind of hard, globular
candy’;
mainland
— ‘a continent’ all go back to free phrases which be-
came semantically and structurally isolated in the course of time. The
words that once made up these phrases have lost, within these particular
formations, their integrity, the whole phrase has become isolated in form,
specialised in meaning and thus turned into an inseparable unit — a word
having acquired semantic and morphological unity. Most of the syntactic
compound nouns of the
(a+n)
structure, e.g.
bluebell, blackboard, mad-
doctor,
are the result of such semantic and structural isolation of free
word-groups; to give but one more example,
highway
was once actually a
high way
for it was raised above the surrounding countryside for better
drainage and ease of travel. Now we use
highway
without any idea Of the
original sense of the first element.
1. Compound words are made up of two ICs,
both of which are derivational bases.
2. The structural and semantic centre of a
compound, i.e. its head-member, is its second IC, which preconditions the
part of speech the compound belongs to and its lexical class.
3.
Phonetically compound words are marked by three stress patterns
— a unity stress, a double stress and a level stress. The first two are the
commonest stress patterns in compounds.
4.
Graphically as a rule compounds are marked by two types of spell-
ing — solid spelling and hyphenated spelling. Some types of compound
words are characterised by fluctuations between hyphenated spelling and
spelling with a space between the components.
5.
Derivational patterns in compound words may be mono- and
polysemantic, in which case they are based on different semantic relations
between the components.
6.
The meaning of compound words is derived from the combined
lexical meanings of the components and the meaning of the derivational
pattern.
158
§ 36. Sources of Compounds
§ 37. Summary
and Conclusions
7. Compound words may be described from different points of view:
a)
According to the degree of semantic independence of components
compounds are classified into coordinative and subordinative. The bulk of
present-day English compounds are subordinative.
b)
According to different parts of speech. Composition is typical in
Modern English mostly of nouns and adjectives.
c)
According to the means by which components are joined together
they are classified into compounds formed with the help of a linking ele-
ment and without. As to the order of ICs it may be asyntactic and syntac-
tic.
d)
According to the type of bases compounds are classified into com-
pounds proper and derivational compounds.
e)
According to the structural semantic correlation with free phrases
compounds are subdivided into adjectival-nominal compound adjectives,
verbal-nominal, verb-adverb and nominal compound nouns.
8. Structural and semantic correlation is understood as a regular inter-
dependence between compound words and variable phrases. A potential
possibility of certain types of phrases presupposes a possibility of com-
pound words conditioning their structure and semantic type.
VI. Etymological Survey of
the English Word-Stock
The most characteristic feature of English is
usually said to be its mixed character. Many
linguists consider foreign influence, especially that of French, to be the
most important factor in the history of English. This wide-spread view-
point is supported only by the evidence of the English word-stock, as its
grammar and phonetic system are very stable and not easily influenced by
other languages. While it is altogether wrong to speak of the mixed char-
acter of the language as a whole, the composite nature of the English vo-
cabulary cannot be denied.
To comprehend the nature of the English vocabulary and its historical
development it is necessary to examine the etymology of its different lay-
ers, the historical causes of their appearance, their volume and role and the
comparative importance of native and borrowed elements in replenishing
the English vocabulary. Before embarking upon a description of the Eng-
lish word-stock from this point of view we must make special mention of
some terms.
'
1. In linguistic literature the term n a t i v e is conventionally used to
denote words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the British Isles from the
continent in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes — the Angles, the
Saxons and the Jutes. Practically, however, the term is often applied to
words whose origin cannot be traced to any other language. Thus, the
word
path
is classified as native just because its origin has not yet been
established with any degree of certainty. It is possible to conjecture that
further progress of linguistic science may throw some light upon its origin
and it may prove to have been borrowed at some earlier period. It is for
this reason that Professor A. I. Smirnitsky relying on the earliest manu-
scripts of the English language available suggested another interpretation
of the term n a t i v e — as words which may be presumed to have ex-
isted in the English word-stock of the 7th century. This interpretation may
have somewhat more reliable criteria behind it, but it seems to have the
same drawback — both viewpoints present the native element in English
as static.
In this book we shall proceed from a different understanding of the
term n a t i v e as comprising not only the ancient Anglo-Saxon core but
also words coined later on their basis by means of various processes op-
erative in English.
2. The term b o r r o w i n g is used in linguistics to denote the proc-
ess of adopting words from other languages and also the result of this
process, the language material itself. It has already been stated that not
only words, but also word-building affixes were borrowed into English (as
is the case with
-able, -ment, -ity,
etc.).
1
It
must be mentioned that
1
See ‘Word-Formation’, § 14, p. 125. 160
§ 1. Some Basic Assumptions
some word-groups, too, were borrowed in their foreign form (e.g.
coup
d'état, vis-á-vis).
In its second meaning the term b o r r o w i n g is sometimes used
in a wider sense. It is extended onto the so-called t r a n s l a t i o n -
l o a n s (or l o a n - t r a n s l a t i o n s ) and s e m a n t i c bor-
rowi n g . T r a n s l a t i o n - l o a n s are words and expressions
formed from the material available in the language after the patterns char-
acteristic of the given language, but under the influence of some foreign
words and expressions (e. g.
mother tongue<
L
. lingua materna; it goes
without saying <
Fr.
cela va sans dire; wall newspaper
< Russ. стенга-
зета).
Semantic borrowing
is the appearance of a new meaning due to
the influence of a related word in another language (e.g. the word
propa-
ganda
and
reaction
acquired their political meanings under the influence
of French,
deviation
and
bureau
entered political vocabulary, as in
right
and left deviations, Political bureau,
under the influence of Russian).
Further on we shall use the term bоrrоwing in its second meaning, as a
borrowing proper or a word taken over in its material form.
Distinction should be made between true borrowings and words formed
out of morphemes borrowed from Latin and Greek, e.g.
telephone, pho-
nogram.
Such words were never part of Latin or Greek and they do not
reflect any contacts with the peoples speaking those languages.
It is of importance to note that the term b o r r o w i n g belongs to
diachronic description of the word-stock. Thus the words
wine, cheap,
pound
introduced by the Romans into all Germanic dialects long before
the Angles and the Saxons settled on the British Isles, and such late Latin
loans as
alibi, memorandum, stratum
may all be referred to borrowings
from the same language in describing their origin, though in modern Eng-
lish they constitute distinctly different groups of words.
3. There is also certain confusion between the terms s o u r c e of
b o r r o w i n g s and o r i g i n o f t h e w o r d . This confusion
may be seen in contradictory marking of one and the same word as, say, a
French borrowing in one dictionary and Latin borrowing in another. It is
suggested here that the term s o u r c e of borrowing should be applied to
the language from which this or that particular word was taken into Eng-
lish. So when describing words as Latin, French or Scandinavian borrow-
ings we point out their source but not their origin. The term o r i g i n оf
t h e w o r d should be applied to the language the word may be traced
to. Thus, the French borrowing
table
is Latin by origin
(L.
tabula),
the
Latin borrowing
school
came into Latin from the Greek language
(Gr.
schole),
so
it
may be described as Greek by origin.
It should be remembered, however, that whereas the immediate source
of borrowing is as a rule known and can be stated with some certainty, the
actual origin of the word may be rather doubtful. For example, the word
ink
was borrowed from Old French, but it may be traced back to Latin and
still further to Greek (cf.
Gr.
kaio-),
and it is quite possible that it was bor-
rowed into Greek from some other language.
The immediate source of borrowing is naturally of greater importance
for language students because it reveals the extra-linguistic factors
161