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progression
to show that the former was already used in England in the
11th century, the latter not t i l l the 15th century. The history of these
words reveals that the word
procession
has undergone a number of
changes alongside with other English words (change in declension, accen-
tuation, structure, sounds), whereas the word
progression
underwent some
changes by analogy with the word
procession
and other similar words al-
ready at the time of its appearance in the language.
Since the process of assimilation of borrow-
ings includes changes in sound-form, mor-
phological structure, grammar characteristics,
meaning and usage Soviet linguists distinguish phonetic, grammatical and
lexical assimilation of borrowings.
Phonetic assimilation
comprising changes in sound-form and stress is
perhaps the most conspicuous.
Sounds that were alien to the English language were fitted into its
scheme of sounds. For instance, the long [e] and [ε] in recent French bor-
rowings, alien to English speech, are rendered with the help of [ei] (as in
the words
communiqué, chaussée, café).
Familiar sounds or sound combinations the position of which was
strange to the English language, were replaced by other sounds or sound
combinations to make the words conform to the norms of the language,
e.g. German
spitz [
∫pits
]
was turned into English [spits]. Substitution of
native sounds for foreign ones usually takes place in the very act of bor-
rowing. But some words retain their foreign pronunciation for a long time
before the unfamiliar sounds are replaced by similar native sounds.
Even when a borrowed word seems at first sight to be identical in form
with its immediate etymon as
OE.
skill
<
Scand.
skil;
OE.
scinn
< <
Scand.
skinn;
OE.
ran
<
Scand.
ran
the phonetic structure of the word
undergoes some changes, since every language as well as every period in
the history of a language is characterised by its own peculiarities in the
articulation of sounds.
In words that were added to English from foreign sources, especially
from French or Latin, the accent was gradually transferred to the first syl-
lable. Thus words like
honour, reason
were accented on the same princi-
ple as the native
father, mother.
Grammatical Assimilation.
Usually as soon as words from other lan-
guages were introduced into English they lost their former grammatical
categories and paradigms and acquired hew grammatical categories and
paradigms by analogy with other English words, as in
им.
спутник
Com. sing.
Sputnik
род.
спутника
Poss. sing.
Sputnik’s
дат.
спутнику
Com. pl.
Sputniks
вин.
спутник
Poss. pl.
Sputniks’
вин.
спутником
предл. о
спутнике
However, there are some words in Modern English that have for centu-
ries retained their foreign inflexions. Thus a considerable group of
167
§ 8. Phonetic, Grammatical
and Lexical Assimilation
of Borrowings
borrowed nouns, all of them terms or literary words adopted in the 16th
century or later, have preserved their original plural inflexion to this day,
e.g.
phenomenon
(L.)
—
phenomena; addendum
(L.)
— addenda; pa-
renthesis
(Gr.)
—
parentheses.
Other borrowings of the same period have
two plural forms — the native and the foreign, e.g.
vacuum
(L.)
— vacua,
vacuums, virtuoso
(It.)
— virtuosi, virtuosos.
All borrowings that were composite in structure in their native lan-
guage appeared in English as indivisible simple words, unless there were
already words with the same morphemes in it, e.g. in the word
saunter
the
French infinitive inflexion
-er
is retained (cf.
OFr.
s'aunter),
but it has
changed its quality, it is preserved in all the other grammatical forms of
the word (cf.
saunters, sauntered, sauntering),
which means that it has
become part of the stem in English. The French reflexive pronoun
s-
has
become fixed as an inseparable element of the word. The former Italian
diminishing suffixes
-etto, -otta, -ello(a), -cello
in the words
ballot, sti-
letto, umbrella
cannot be distinguished without special historical analysis,
unless one knows the Italian language. The composite nature of the word
portfolio
is not seen either
(cf. It.
portafogli < porta
— imperative of
‘carry’ +
fogli
— ’sheets of paper’). This loss of morphological seams in
borrowings may be termed simplification by analogy with a similar proc-
ess in native words.
1
It must be borne in mind that when there appears in a language a group
of borrowed words built on the same pattern or containing the same mor-
phemes, the morphological structure of the words becomes apparent and in
the course of time their word-building elements can be employed to form
new words.
2
Thus the word
bolshevik
was at first indivisible in English,
which is seen from the forms
bolshevikism, bolshevikise, bolshevikian
entered by some dictionaries. Later on the word came to be divided into
the morphological elements
bolshev-ik.
The new morphological division
can be accounted for by the existence of a number of words containing
these elements
(bolshevism, bolshevist, bolshevise; sputnik, udarnik,
menshevik).
Sometimes in borrowed words foreign affixes are replaced by those
available in the English language, e.g. the inflexion
-us
in Latin adjectives
was replaced in English with the suffixes
-ous
or
-al:
L.
barbarus > >
E.
barbarous;
L.
botanicus >
E.
botanical;
L.
balneus >
E.
balneal.
Lexical Assimilation.
When a word is taken over into another lan-
guage, its semantic structure as a rule undergoes great changes.
Polysemantic words are usually adopted only in one or two of their
meanings. Thus the word
timbre
that had a number of meanings in French
was borrowed into English as a musical term only. The words
cargo
and
cask,
highly polysemantic in Spanish, were adopted only in one of their
meanings — ‘the goods carried in a ship’, ‘a barrel for holding liquids’
respectively.
• In some cases we can observe specialisation of meaning, as in the
word
hangar,
denoting a building in which aeroplanes are kept (in French
1
See ‘Word-Structure’, § 13, p. 105; ‘Word-Formation’, § 34, p. 151.
2
See
‘Word-Formation’, § 14, p. 125.
168
it meant simply ’shed’) and
revue,
which had the meaning of ‘review’ in
French and came to denote a kind of theatrical entertainment in English.
In the process of its historical development a borrowing sometimes ac-
quired new meanings that were not to be found in its former semantic
structure. For instance, the verb
move
in Modern English has developed
the meanings of ‘propose’, ‘change one’s flat’, ‘mix with people’ and oth-
ers that the French
mouvoir
does not possess. The word
scope,
which
originally had the meaning of ‘aim, purpose’, now means ‘ability to under-
stand’, ‘the field within which an activity takes place, sphere’, ‘opportu-
nity, freedom of action’. As a rule the development of new meanings takes
place 50 — 100 years after the word is borrowed.
The semantic structure of borrowings changes in other ways as well.
Some meanings become more general, others more specialised, etc. For
instance, the word
terrorist,
that was taken over from French in the mean-
ing of ‘Jacobin’, widened its meaning to ‘one who governs, or opposes a
government by violent means’. The word
umbrella,
borrowed in the
meaning of a ’sunshade’ or ‘parasol’ (from
It.
ombrella <ombra
—
’shade
1
) came to denote similar protection from the rain as well.
Usually the primary meaning of a borrowed word is retained through-
out its history, but sometimes it becomes a secondary meaning. Thus the
Scandinavian borrowings
wing, root, take
and many others have retained
their primary meanings to the present day, whereas in the
OE.
fēolaze
(MnE.
fellow)
which was borrowed from the same source in the meaning
of ‘comrade, companion’, the primary meaning has receded to the back-
ground and was replaced by the meaning that appeared in New English ‘a
man or a boy’.
Sometimes change of meaning is the result of associating borrowed
words with familiar words which somewhat resemble them in sound but
which are not at all related. This process, which is termed f o l k e t y -
m o l o g y , often changes the form of the word in whole or in part, so as
to bring it nearer to the word or words with which it is thought to be con-
nected, e.g. the French verb
sur(o)under
had the meaning of ‘overflow’.
In English
-r(o)under
was associated by mistake with
round
—
круглый
and the verb was interpreted as meaning ‘enclose on all sides,
encircle’
(MnE.
surround).
Old French
estandard
(L.
estendere
— ‘t o spread’)
had the meaning of ‘a flag, banner’. In English the first part was wrongly
associated with the verb
stand
and the word
standard
also acquired the
meaning of ’something stable, officially accepted’.
Folk-etymologisation is a slow process; people first attempt to give the
foreign borrowing its foreign pronunciation, but gradually popular use
evolves a new pronunciation and spelling.
Another phenomenon which must also receive special attention is the
f o r m a t i o n of d e r i v a t i v e s from borrowed word-stems.
New derivatives are usually formed with the help of productive affixes,
often of Anglo-Saxon origin. For instance:
faintness, closeness, easily,
nobly,
etc. As a rule derivatives begin to appear rather soon after the bor-
rowing of the word. Thus almost immediately after the borrowing of the
word
sputnik
the words
pre-sputnik, sputnikist, sputnikked, to out-
sputnik
were coined in English.
169
Many derivatives were formed by means of conversion, as in
to mani-
festo
(1748) <
manifesto
(It.,
1644);
to encore
(1748) <
encore
(Fr.,
1712);
to coach
(1612) <
coach
(Fr.,
1556).
Similarly hybrid compounds were formed, e. g.
faint-hearted, ill-
tempered, painstaking.
Even a superficial examination of borrowed
words in the English word-stock shows that
there are words among them that are easily
recognised as foreign (such as
decolleté, façade, Zeitgeist, voile)
and
there are others that have become so firmly rooted in the language, so
thoroughly assimilated that it is sometimes” extremely difficult to distin-
guish them from words of Anglo-Saxon origin (these are words like
pupil,
master, city, river,
etc.).
Unassimilated words differ from assimilated ones in their pronuncia-
tion, spelling, semantic structure, frequency and sphere of application.
However, there is no distinct border-line between the two groups. There
are also words assimilated in some respects and unassimilated in others,
they may be called partially assimilated. Such are
communiqué, détente
not yet assimilated phonetically,
phenomenon
(pl.
phenomena), graffito
(pl.
graffiti)
unassimilated grammatically, etc. So far no linguist has been
able to suggest more or less comprehensive criteria for determining the
degree of assimilation of borrowings.
The degree of assimilation depends in the first place upon the time of
borrowing. The general principle is: the older the borrowing, the more
thoroughly it tends to follow normal English habits of accentuation, pro-
nunciation, etc. It is natural that the bulk of early borrowings have ac-
quired full English citizenship and that most English speaking people are
astonished on first hearing, that such everyday words as
window, chair,
dish, box
have not always belonged to their language. Late borrowings
often retain their foreign peculiarities.
However mere age is not the sole factor. Not only borrowings long in
use, but also those of recent date may be completely made over to conform
to English patterns if they are widely and popularly employed. Words that
are rarely used in everyday speech, that are known to a small group of
people retain their foreign -peculiarities. Thus many 19th century French
borrowings have been completely assimilated (e.g.
turbine, clinic, exploi-
tation, diplomat),
whereas the words adopted much earlier
noblesse
[no'bles]
(ME.),
ennui
[ã:'nwi:] (1667),
eclat
[ei'kla:] (1674) have not been
assimilated even in point of pronunciation.
Another factor determining the process of assimilation is the way in
which the borrowing was taken over into the language. Words borrowed
orally are assimilated more readily, they undergo greater changes, whereas
with words adopted through writing the process of assimilation is longer
and more laborious.
1. Due to “the specific historical development
of English, it has adopted many words from
other languages, especially from Latin, French and Old Scandinavian,
though the number and importance of these borrowings are usually overes-
timated.
170
§ 9. Degree of Assimilation
and Factors Determining It
§ 10. Summary and Conclusions
2.
The number and character of borrowings in Modern English from
various languages depend on the historical conditions and also on the de-
gree of the genetic and structural proximity of the languages in question.
3.
Borrowings enter the language through oral speech (mainly in early
periods of history) and through written speech (mostly in recent times).
4.
In the English language borrowings may be discovered through
some peculiarities in pronunciation, spelling, morphological and semant i c
structures. Sometimes these peculiarities enable us even to discover the
immediate source of borrowing.
5.
All borrowed words undergo the process of assimilation, i.e. they ad-
just themselves to the phonetic and lexico-grammatical norms of the lan-
guage. Phonetic assimilation comprises substitution of native sounds and
sound combinations for strange ones and for familiar sounds used in a po-
sition strange to the English language, as well as shift of stress. Grammati-
cal assimilation finds expression in the change of grammatical categories
and paradigms of borrowed words, change of their morphological struc-
ture. Lexical assimilation includes changes in semantic structure and the
formation of derivatives,
6.
Substitution of sounds, formation of new grammatical categories and
paradigms, morphological simplification and narrowing of meaning take
place in the very act of borrowing. Some words however retain foreign
sounds and inflexions for a long time. Shift of stress is a long and gradual
process; the same is true of the development of new meanings in a bor-
rowed word, while the formation of derivatives may occur soon after the
adoption of the word.
7.
The degree of assimilation depends on the time of borrowing, the ex-
tent to which the word is used in the language and the way of borrowing.
INTERRELATION BETWEEN NATIVE
AND BORROWED ELEMENTS
The number of borrowings in Old English
was meagre. In the Middle English period
there was an influx of loans. It is often con-
tended that since the Norman conquest borrowing has been the chief factor
in the enrichment of the English vocabulary and as a result there was a
sharp decline in the productivity of word-formation.
1
Historical evidence,
however, testifies to the fact that throughout its entire history, even in the
periods of the mightiest influxes of borrowings, other processes, no less
intense, were in operation — word-formation and semantic development,
which involved both native and borrowed elements.
If the estimation of the role of borrowings is based on the study of
words recorded in the dictionary, it is easy to overestimate the effect of the
loan words, as the number of native words is extremely small
1
See ‘Etymological Survey ...’, § 3, p. 162.
171
§ 1 1 . The Role of Native
and Borrowed Elements