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It is common knowledge that one of the major problems in the learning
of the second language is the interference caused by the difference be-
tween the mother tongue of the learner and the target language. All the
problems of foreign language teaching will certainly not be solved by con-
trastive linguistics alone. There is no doubt, however, that contrastive
analysis has a part to play in evaluation of errors, in predicting typical er-
rors and thus must be seen in connection with overall endeavours to ra-
tionalise and intensify foreign language teaching.
Linguistic scholars working in the field of applied linguistics assume
that the most effective teaching materials are those that are based upon a
scientific description of the language to be learned carefully compared
with a parallel description of the native language of the learner.
1
They proceed from the assumption that the categories, elements, etc. on
the semantic as well as on the syntactic and other levels are valid for both
languages, i.e. are adopted from a possibly universal inventory. For exam-
ple, linking verbs can be found in English, in French, in Russian, etc.
Linking verbs having the meaning of ‘change’, ‘become’ are differently
represented in each of the languages. In English, e.g.,
become, come, fall,
get, grow, run, turn, wax,
in German —
werden,
in French —
devenir,
in Russian —
становиться.
The task set before the linguist is to find out which semantic and syn-
tactic features characterise 1. the English set of verbs (cf.
grow thin, get
angry, fall ill, turn traitor, run dry, wax eloquent),
2. the French (Rus-
sian, German, etc.) set of verbs, 3. how the two sets compare. Cf., e.g., the
English word-groups
grow thin, get angry, fall il l
and the Russian verbs
похудеть, рассердиться, заболеть.
Contrastive analysis can be carried out at three linguistic levels: pho-
nology, grammar (morphology and syntax) and lexis (vocabulary). In what
follows we shall try to give a brief survey of contrastive analysis mainly at
the level of lexis.
Contrastive analysis is applied to reveal the features of sameness and
difference in the lexical meaning and the semantic structure of correlated
words in different languages.
It is commonly assumed by non-linguists that all languages have vo-
cabulary systems in which the words themselves differ in sound-form but
r e f e r to reality in the same way. From this assumption it follows that
for every word in the mother tongue there is an exact equivalent in the for-
eign language. It is a belief which is reinforced by the small bilingual dic-
tionaries where single word translations are often offered. Language learn-
ing however cannot be just a matter of learning to substitute a new set of
labels for the familiar ones of the mother tongue.
Firstly, it should be borne in mind that though objective reality exists
outside human beings and irrespective of the language they speak every
language classifies reality in its own way by means of vocabulary units. In
English, e.g., the word
foot
is used to denote the extremity of the leg. In
Russian there is no exact equivalent for
foot.
The word
нога
denotes the
whole leg including the foot.
1
See, e. g.,
Ch. Fries.
Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language. Univer-
sity of Michigan Press, 1963, p. 9.
237
Classification of the real world around us provided by the vocabulary
units of our mother tongue is learned and assimilated together with our
first language. Because we are used to the way in which our own language
structures experience we are often inclined to think of this as the only natu-
ral way of handling things whereas in fact it is highly arbitrary. One exam-
ple is provided by the words
watch
and
clock.
It would seem n a t u r a l
for Russian speakers to have a single word to refer to
all
devices that tell
us what time it is; yet in English they are divided into two semantic classes
depending on whether or not they are customarily portable. We also find it
natural that kinship terms should reflect the difference between male and
female:
brother
or
sister, father or mother, uncle
or
aunt,
etc. yet in
English we fail to make this distinction in the case of
cousin
(cf. the Rus-
sian —
двоюродный брат, двоюродная сестра).
Contrastive analysis
also brings to light what can be labelled p r o b l e m p a i r s , i.e. the
words that denote two entities in one language and correspond to two dif-
ferent words in another language.
Compare, for example
часы
in Russian and
clock, watch
in English,
художник
in Russian and
artist, painter
in English.
Each language contains words which cannot be translated directly from
this language into another. For example, favourite examples of untranslat-
able German words are
gemütlich
(something like ‘easygoing’, ‘humbly
pleasant’, ‘informal’) and Schadenfreude (‘pleasure over the fact that
someone else has suffered a misfortune’). Traditional examples of untrans-
latable English words are
sophisticated
and efficient.
This is not to say that the lack of word-for-word equivalents implies
also the lack of what is denoted by these words. If this were true, we
would have to conclude that speakers of English never indulge in Shaden-
freude and that there are no sophisticated Germans or there is no efficient
industry in any country outside England or the USA.
If we abandon the primitive notion of word-for-word equivalence, we
can safely assume, f i r s t l y , that anything which can be said in one
language can be translated more or less accurately into another, s e c -
o n d l y , that correlated polysemantic words of different languages are
as a rule not co-extensive. Polysemantic words in all languages may de-
note very different types of objects and yet all the meanings are considered
by the native speakers to be obviously logical extensions of the b a s i c
m e a n i n g . For example, to an Englishman it is self-evident that one
should be able to use the word
head
to denote the following:
head
{
of a person
of a bed of a
coin of a
cane
head
{
of a match of a table
of an organisation
whereas in Russian different words have to be used:
голова, изголовье,
сторона, головка,
etc.
The very real danger for the Russian language learner here is that hav-
ing learned first that
head
is the English word which denotes a part
238
of the body he will assume that it can be used in all the cases where the
Russian word
голова
is used in Russian, e.g.
голова сахара
(‘a loaf of
sugar’),
городской голова
(‘mayor of the city’),
он парень с головой
(‘he
is a bright lad’),
в первую голову
(‘in the first place’),
погрузиться во
что-л. с головой
(‘to throw oneself into smth.’), etc., but will never think
of using the word
head
in connection with ‘a bed’ or ‘a coin’.
T h i r d l y , the meaning of any word depends to a great extent on the
place it occupies in the set of semantically related words: its synonyms,
the constituents of the lexical field the word belongs to, other members of
the word-family which the word enters, etc.
Thus, e.g., in the English synonymic set
brave, courageous, bold,
fearless, audacious, valiant, valorous, doughty, undaunted, intrepid
each word differs in certain component of meaning from the others,
brave
usually implies resolution and self-control in meeting without flinching a
situation that inspires fear,
courageous
stresses stout-hearted-ness and
firmness of temper,
bold
implies either a temperamental liking for danger
or a willingness to court danger or to dare the unknown, etc. Comparing
the corresponding Russian synonymic set
храбрый, бесстрашный, сме-
лый, мужественный, отважный,
etc. we see that the Russian word
сме-
лый,
e.g., may be considered as a correlated word to either
brave, valiant
or
valorous
and also that no member of the Russian synonymic set can be
viewed as an exact equivalent of any single member of the English syn-
onymic set in isolation, although all of them denote ‘having or showing
fearlessness in meeting that which is dangerous, difficult, or unknown’.
Different aspects of this quality are differently distributed among the
words making up the synonymic set. This absence of one-to-one corre-
spondence can be also observed if we compare the constituents of the same
lexico-semantic group in different languages. Thus, for example, let us as-
sume that an Englishman has in his vocabulary the following words for
evaluating mental aptitude:
apt, bright, brilliant, clever, cunning, intelli-
gent, shrewd, sly, dull, stupid, slow, foolish, silly.
Each of these words
has a definite meaning for him. Therefore each word actually represents a
value judgement. As the Englishman sees a display of mental aptitude, he
attaches one of these words to the situation and in so doing, he attaches a
value judgement. The corresponding Russian semantic field of mental apti-
tude is different (cf.
способный, хитрый, умный, глупый, тупой,
etc.),
therefore the meaning of each word is slightly different too. What Russian
speakers would describe as
хитрый
might be described by English speak-
ers as either cunning or
sly
depending on how they evaluate the given
situation.
The problem under discussion may be also illustrated by the analysis of
the members of correlated word-families, e.g., cf.
голова, головка,
etc.
head, heady,
etc. which are differently connected with the main word of
the family in each of the two languages and have different denotational
and connotational components of meaning. This can be easily observed in
words containing diminutive and endearing suffixes, e.g. the English word
head, grandfather, girl
and others do not possess the connotative compo-
nent which is part of the meaning of the Russian words
головка, головуш-
ка, головёнка, дедушка, дедуля,
etc.
239
Thus on the lexical level or to be more exact on the level of the lexical
meaning contrastive analysis reveals that correlated polysemantic words
are not co-extensive and shows the teacher where to expect an unusual de-
gree of learning difficulty. This analysis may also point out the effective
ways of overcoming the anticipated difficulty as it shows which of the new
items will require a more extended and careful presentation and practice.
Difference in the lexical meaning (or meanings) of correlated words
accounts for the difference of their collocability in different languages.
This is of particular importance in developing speech habits as the mas-
tery of collocations is much more important than the knowledge of iso-
lated words.
Thus, e.g., the English adjective new and the Russian adjective
новый
when taken in isolation are felt as correlated words as in a number of
cases new stands for
новый,
e.g.
новое платье
— a new dress,
Новый
Год
— New Year. In collocation with other nouns, however, the Russian
adjective cannot be used in the same meaning in which the English word
new is currently used. Compare, e.g., new potatoes —
молодая картош-
ка,
new bread —
свежий хлеб,
etc.
The lack of co-extension may be observed in collocations made up by
words belonging to different parts of speech, e.g. compare word-groups
with the verb to fill:
to fill a lamp —
заправлять лам-
to fill a truck —
загружать ма-
ny
шину
to fill a pipe —
набивать трубку
to fill a gap —
заполнять пробел
As we see the verb to fill in different collocations corresponds to a
number of different verbs in Russian. Conversely one Russian word may
correspond to a number of English words.
For instance compare
тонкая книга
— a thin book
тонкая
ирония
— subtle irony
тонкая та-
лия
— slim waist
Perhaps the greatest difficulty for the Russian learners of English is the
fact that not only notional words but also function words in different lan-
guages are polysemantic and not co-extensive. Quite a number of mistakes
made by the Russian learners can be accounted for by the divergence in
the semantic structure of function words. Compare, for example, the
meanings of the Russian preposition до and its equivalents in the English
language.
(Он работал) до 5 часов
till 5 o'clock
(Это было) до войны
before the war
(Он дошел) до угла
to the corner
Contrastive analysis on the level of t h e g r a m m a t i c a l meaning
reveals that correlated words in different languages may differ in the
grammatical component of their meaning.
To take a simple instance Russians are liable to say the *
news are
good
, *
the money are on the table, *her hair are black,
etc. as the words
240
новости, деньги, волосы
have the grammatical meaning of plurality in
the Russian language.
Of particular interest in contrastive analysis are the compulsory gram-
matical categories which foreign language learners may find in the lan-
guage they are studying and which are different from or nonexistent in
their mother tongue. These are the meanings which the grammar of the
language “forces” us to signal whether we want it or not.
One of the compulsory grammatical categories in English is the cate-
gory of definiteness/indefiniteness. We know that English signals this
category by means of the articles. Compare the meaning of the word man
in the
man
is honest and man is honest.
As this category is non-existent in the Russian language it is obvious
that Russian learners find it hard to use the articles properly.
Contrastive analysis brings to light the essence of what is usually de-
scribed as i d i o m a t i c E n g l i s h , i d i o m a t i c R u s s i a n
etc., i.e. the peculiar way in which every language combines and structures
in lexical units various concepts to denote extra-linguistic reality.
The outstanding Russian linguist acad. L. V. Sčerba repeatedly stressed
the fact that it is an error in principle if one supposes that the notional sys-
tems of any two languages are identical. Even in those areas where the two
cultures overlap and where the material extralinguistic world is identical,
the lexical units of the two languages are not different labels appended to
identical concepts. In the overwhelming majority of cases the concepts
denoted are differently organised by verbal means in the two languages.
Different verbal organisation of concepts in different languages may be
observed not only in the difference of the semantic structure of correlated
words but also in the structural difference of word-groups commonly used
to denote identical entities.
For example, a typical Russian word-group used to describe the way
somebody performs an action, or the state in which a person finds himself,
has the structure that may be represented by the formula
adverb followed
by a finite form of a verb
(or
a verb
+
an adverb),
e.g.
он крепко спит,
он быстро /медленно/ усваивает,
etc. In English we can also use struc-
turally similar word-groups and say he smokes
a lot, he learnsslowly
(fast), etc. The structure of idiomatic English word-groups however is dif-
ferent. The formula of this word-group can be represented as
an adjective
+
deverbal noun,
e.g. he is a heavy smoker,
a poor learner,
e.g. “the Eng-
lishman is a slow starter but there is no stronger finisher” (Galsworthy).
Another English word-group used in similar cases has the structure
verb to
be
+
adjective
+
the infinitive,
e.g.
(He) is quick to realise,
(He) is slow to
cool down, etc. which is practically non-existent in the Russian language.
Commonly used English words of the type (he is) an
early-riser, a music-
lover,
etc. have no counterparts in the Russian language and as a rule cor-
respond to phrases of the type
(Он) рано встает, (он) очень любит му-
зыку,
etc.
1
See ‘Word-Formation’, § 34, p. 151,
241