Файл: Учебное пособие по английскому языку для практических занятий студентов 2 курса.docx

TEXTS FOR READING

A. S. Popov

Radio occupies one of the leading places among the greatest achievements of modem engineering. It was invented by Professor A. S. Popov, the talented Russian scientist, who demonstrated the first radio-receiving set in the world on May 7, 1895 And it is on this day that we mark the anniversary of the birth of the radio.

By his invention Popov made a priceless contribution to the development of world science.

A. S. Popov was born in the Urals, on March 16, 1859 For some years he had been studying at the seminary in Perm and then went to the University of St. Petersburg. In his student days he worked as a mechanic at one of the first electric power-plants in St. Petersburg which was producing electric lights for Nevsky prospect.

After graduating from the University in 1882, A. S. Popov remained there as a post-graduate at the Physics Department. A year later he became a lecturer in Physics and Electrical Engineering in Kronstadt. By this time he had already won recognition among specialists as an authority in this field.

After Hertz had published his experiments proving the existence of electromagnetic waves, A. S. Popov thought of a possibility of using Hertz waves for transmitting signals over a distance. Thus the first wireless (radio) receiving set was created. Then Popov developed his device and on March 24, 1896 he demonstrated the transmission and reception of a radiogram consisting of two words: Heinrich Hertz-- On that day the radio-telegraphy was converted from an abstract theoretical problem into a real fact. A. S. Popov did not live to see the great progress of his invention.

In its first decrees the Soviet Government planned the development of an industry for producing radio equipment, the construction of radio stations. All this was put into practice on a scale which had greatly surpassed Lenin's plans for radiofication of the country.

Popov's invention laid the foundation for further inventions and improvements in the field of radio engineering. Since that time scientists all over the world have been developing the modern systems of radio-telegraphy, broadcasting, television, radiolocation, radio navigation and other branches of radio electronics.

Radio will find still greater applications in many fields of science and technology.
Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest physicists of all time. Einstein is best known for developing the theory of relativity, but he also made important contributions to the development of the theory of quantum mechanics. Relativity and quantum mechanics are together the two pillars of modern physics. His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, which arises from relativity theory, has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation". His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His intellectual achievements and originality resulted in "Einstein" becoming synonymous with "genius".

In 1905, a year sometimes described as his annus mirabilis ('miracle year'), Einstein published four groundbreaking papers. These outlined the theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion, introduced special relativity, and demonstrated mass-energy equivalence. Einstein thought that the laws of classical mechanics could no longer be reconciled with those of the electromagnetic field, which led him to develop his special theory of relativity. He then extended the theory to gravitational fields; he published a paper on general relativity in 1916, introducing his theory of gravitation. In 1917, he applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light and the quantum theory of radiation, which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.

However, for much of the later part of his career, he worked on two ultimately unsuccessful endeavors. First, despite his great contributions to quantum mechanics, he opposed what it evolved into, objecting that nature "does not play dice". Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of modern physics.

---

Einstein was born in the German Empire, but moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship the following year. In 1897, at the age of 17, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich, graduating in 1900. In 1901 he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life, and in 1903 he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1917, Einstein became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics; he also became a German citizen again, this time Prussian.

In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Einstein, of Jewish origin, objected to the policies of the newly elected Nazi government; he settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research. Einstein supported the Allies but generally denounced the idea of nuclear weapons.
Nikola Tesla

Nikola Tesla was an engineer and scientist known for designing the alternating-current (AC) electric system, which is the predominant electrical system used across the world today. He also created the "Tesla coil," which is still used in radio technology.

Born in modern-day Croatia, Tesla came to the United States in 1884 and briefly worked with Thomas Edison before the two parted ways. He sold several patent rights, including those to his AC machinery, to George Westinghouse.

Tesla was born in Smiljan, Croatia, on July 10, 1856.

Tesla was one of five children, including siblings Dane, Angelina, Milka and Marica. Tesla's interest in electrical invention was spurred by his mother, Djuka Mandic, who invented small household appliances in her spare time while her son was growing up.

Tesla's father, Milutin Tesla, was a Serbian orthodox priest and a writer, and he pushed for his son to join the priesthood. But Nikola's interests lay squarely in the sciences.

After studying at the Realschule, Karlstadt (later renamed the Johann-Rudolph-Glauber Realschule Karlstadt) in Germany; the Polytechnic Institute in Graz, Austria; and the University of Prague during the 1870s, Tesla moved to Budapest, where for a time he worked at the Central Telephone Exchange.

In 1885, Tesla received funding for the Tesla Electric Light Company and was tasked by his investors to develop improved arc lighting. After successfully doing so, however, Tesla was forced out of the venture and for a time had to work as a manual laborer in order to survive. His luck would change two years later when he received funding for his new Tesla Electric Company.

Throughout his career, Tesla discovered, designed and developed ideas for a number of important inventions — most of which were officially patented by other inventors — including dynamos (electrical generators similar to batteries) and the induction motor.

He was also a pioneer in the discovery of radar technology, X-ray technology, remote control and the rotating magnetic field — the basis of most AC machinery. Tesla is most well-known for his contributions in AC electricity and for the Tesla coil.

Tesla died of coronary thrombosis on January 7, 1943, at the age of 86 in New York City, where he had lived for nearly 60 years.

However, the legacy of the work Tesla left behind him lives on to this day. In 1994, a street sign identifying "Nikola Tesla Corner" was installed near the site of his former New York City laboratory, at the intersection of 40th Street and 6th Avenue.
Elon Musk

Elon Musk is a South African-born American entrepreneur and businessman who founded X.com in 1999 (which later became PayPal), SpaceX in 2002 and Tesla Motors in 2003. Musk became a multimillionaire in his late 20s when he sold his start-up company, Zip2, to a division of Compaq Computers.

Musk made headlines in May 2012, when SpaceX launched a rocket that would send the first commercial vehicle to the International Space Station. He bolstered his portfolio with the purchase of SolarCity in 2016 and cemented his standing as a leader of industry by taking on an advisory role in the early days of President Donald Trump's administration.

---

In January 2021, Musk reportedly surpassed Jeff Bezos as the wealthiest man in the world.

Musk was born on June 28, 1971, in Pretoria, South Africa. As a child, Musk was so lost in his daydreams about inventions that his parents and doctors ordered a test to check his hearing.

At about the time of his parents’ divorce, when he was 10, Musk developed an interest in computers. He taught himself how to program, and when he was 12 he sold his first software: a game he created called Blastar.

Musk launched his first company, Zip2 Corporation, in 1995 with his brother, Kimbal Musk. An online city guide, Zip2 was soon providing content for the new websites of both The New York Times and the Chicago Tribune. In 1999, a division of Compaq Computer Corporation bought Zip2 for $307 million in cash and $34 million in stock options. In October 2002, Musk earned his first billion when PayPal was acquired by eBay for $1.5 billion in stock. Before the sale, Musk owned 11 percent of PayPal stock.

In August 2013, Musk released a concept for a new form of transportation called the "Hyperloop," an invention that would foster commuting between major cities while severely cutting travel time. Ideally resistant to weather and powered by renewable energy, the Hyperloop would propel riders in pods through a network of low-pressure tubes at speeds reaching more than 700 mph. Musk noted that the Hyperloop could take from seven to 10 years to be built and ready for use.

In October 2019 Musk pledged to donate $1 million to the #TeamTrees campaign, which aims to plant 20 million trees around the world by 2020. He even changed his Twitter name to Treelon for the occasion.

---

Charles Babbage

Charles Babbage (/ˈbæbɪdʒ/; 26 December 1791 – 18 October 1871) was an English polymath. A mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer, Babbage originated the concept of a digital programmable computer.

Babbage is considered by some to be "father of the computer". Babbage is credited with inventing the first mechanical computer, the Difference Engine, that eventually led to more complex electronic designs, though all the essential ideas of modern computers are to be found in Babbage's Analytical Engine, programmed using a principle openly borrowed from the Jacquard loom. Babbage had a broad range of interests in addition to his work on computers covered in his book Economy of Manufactures and Machinery. His varied work in other fields has led him to be described as "pre-eminent" among the many polymaths of his century. Babbage was instrumental in founding the Royal Astronomical Society in 1820, initially known as the Astronomical Society of London. Its original aims were to reduce astronomical calculations to a more standard form, and to circulate data. In 1838, Babbage invented the pilot (also called a cow-catcher), the metal frame attached to the front of locomotives that clears the tracks of obstacles; he also constructed a dynamometer car. His eldest son, Benjamin Herschel Babbage, worked as an engineer for Brunel on the railways before emigrating to Australia in the 1850s.

Babbage also invented an ophthalmoscope, which he gave to Thomas Wharton Jones for testing. Jones, however, ignored it. The device only came into use after being independently invented by Hermann von Helmholtz.

Babbage, who died before the complete successful engineering of many of his designs, including his Difference Engine and Analytical Engine, remained a prominent figure in the ideating of computing. Parts of Babbage's incomplete mechanisms are on display in the Science Museum in London. In 1991, a functioning difference engine was constructed from Babbage's original plans. Built to tolerances achievable in the 19th century, the success of the finished engine indicated that Babbage's machine would have worked.
George Stephenson

George Stephenson was a British inventor and engineer. He is famous for building the first practical rail way locomotive.

Stephenson was born in 1781 in Wylam, near New castle upon Tyne, Northumberland. During his youth he worked as a fireman and later as an engineer in the coal mines of Newcastle. He invented one of the first miner's safety lamps independently of the British inventor Humphry Davy. Stephenson's early locomotives were used to carry loads in coal mines, and in 1813 he established a factory at Newcastle for their manufacture. In 1829 he designed a locomotive known as the Rocket which could carry both loads and passengers at a greater speed than any locomotive constructed at that time. The success of the Rocket was the beginning of the construction of locomotives and the laying of Robert Stephenson, the son of George Stephenson was a British civil engineer.

He was born in 1803 in Willington Quay, near Newcastle upon Tyne, and educated in Newcastle and at the University of Edinburgh.

Stephenson was a Member of Parliament from 1847 until his death in 1859 At that time, Watt was the partner of the inventor John Roebuck, who had financed his researches. In 1775, however, Roebuck's interest was taken over by the manufacturer Matthew Boulton, owner of the Soho Engineering Works at Birmingham, and he and Watt began the manufacture of steam engines. Watt continued his research and patented several other important inventions, including the rotary engine for driving various types of machinery; the double- action engine, in which steam is admitted alternately into both ends of the cylinder; and the steam indicator, which records the steam pressure in the engine. He retired from the firm in 1800 and thereafter devoted himself entirely The misconception that Watt was the actual inventor of the steam engine arose from the fundamental nature of his contributions to its development. The centrifugal or flyball governor, which he invented in 1788, and which automatically regulated the speed of an engine, is of particular interest today. It embodies the feedback principle of a servomechanism, linking output to input, which is the basic concept of automation. The watt, the unit of power, was named in his honour. Walt was also a well-known civil engineer. He invented, in 1767, an attachment that adapted telescopes for use in the measurement of distances. Watt died in lie the field, near Birmingham, in August 1819.

---

WRITING FILE

Guide to Essay

The purpose of an essay is to present a logical, reasoned argument in response to a specific question. An effective structure helps your argument to unfold clearly to the reader.

The “Rule of Three” Structure:

1) Say what you are going to say.

2) Say it.

3) Say what you have said.

You could use a diagram like this to help you order your ideas. Write each of your main points into a section of the structure:

Introduction: context and aim of the essay. State your argument. Indicate how you will answer the question.

Body of essay: develop argument point by point. Put forward the reasons that support the argument you declared in your introduction.

Conclusion: summarise the reasons that support your argument, with no new information. Remind the reader what you have covered and how you have answered the question.

Key structuring conventions to be used: (Pay attention to the following aspects)

The transition between paragraphs must be smooth. Repeat keywords and use linking words and expressions.

Each paragraph should make only one main point.

The narration of your essay needs to develop logically.

Use simple sentence structures.

Make use of these simple phrases or word-groups to make your essay more meaningful and attractive.

For introducing:

-This essay will analyze (issue here)

-It is undeniable that the (issue here) is one of the most pressing issues in (country)

-It is an established fact that the (issue here)

-It is commonly believed in many of the countries that (issue here)

-It is a well-known fact that…

Phrases that can be used for the body paragraphs (Generally for the opinions / views):

A good example of this is that…

For instance,

Such as

The best example is…

There are many such cases that take place and that go unnoticed.

It is fairly easy to understand the issues that are common

I do not say that I agree with…

I strongly oppose / suggest / recommend that …

Numerous studies conducted on this subject have led to the conclusion that ...

However, it can be concluded that…

It is easy to comprehend that the…

Not all the people support this because…

One argument in support of…

The second reason for…

I believe that…

Personally, I feel that…

As far as I am concerned

In my views

From my point of view / viewpoint

Furthermore

In addition to

Likewise

On top of that

However

But

Nevertheless

Additionally

In contrast

By comparison

Comparing this with the other, it can be said that the latter is / the former is (information here)

Meanwhile

On the other hand

However

As a result

As a consequence

Therefore

Accordingly, that

On that account

For that reason

Another way of looking at this question is to…

Conclusion

What conclusions can be drawn from all this?

The most satisfactory conclusion that we can come to is…

To sum up… we are convinced that…/ …we believe that…/ …we have to accept that…One of the most striking features of this text is…


How to Structure your Presentation

For many people the thought of delivering a presentation is a daunting task. However, if you take some time to understand how effective presentations are structured and then apply this structure to your own presentation, you’ll appear much more confident and relaxed.

Before choosing the presentation's structure answer these questions first:

-What is your presentation's aim?

-Who are the audience?

-What are the main points your audience should remember afterwards?

The typical presentation structure:

1. Greet the audience and introduce yourself

Before you start delivering your talk, introduce yourself to the audience and clarify who you are and your relevant expertise. This does not need to be long or incredibly detailed but will help build an immediate relationship between you and the audience. It gives you the chance to briefly clarify your expertise and why you are worth listening to. This will help establish your ethos so the audience will trust you more and think you're credible.

---