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4.
The productivity of derivational affixes is relative and conditioned
by various factors.
t
5.
Many of the Modern English derivational affixes were at one time
independent words. Others have always been known as suffixes or pre-
fixes within the history of the English vocabulary. Some of them are of
international currency.
Conversion
Conversion, one of the principal ways of
forming words in Modern English is highly
productive in replenishing the English word-stock with new words. The
term c o n v e r s i o n , which some linguists find inadequate, refers to
the numerous cases of phonetic identity of word-forms, primarily the so-
called initial forms, of two words belonging to different parts of speech.
This may be illustrated by the following cases:
work — to work; love
—
to love; paper — to paper; brief — to brief,
etc. As a rule we deal w i t h simple
words, although there are a few exceptions, e.g.
wireless — to wireless.
It is fairly obvious that in the case of a noun and a verb not only are
the so-called initial forms (i.e. the infinitive and the common case singu-
lar) phonetically identical, but all the other noun forms have their homo-
nyms within the verb paradigm, cf.
(my) work [wэ:k]) — (I)work
[wэ:k]; (the) dog’s [dogz] (head) — (many) dogs [dogz] — (he) dogs
[dogz],
etc.
It will be recalled that, although inflectional categories have been
greatly reduced in English in the last eight or nine centuries, there is a cer-
tain difference on the morphological level between various parts of
speech, primarily between nouns and verbs. For instance, there is a clear-
cut difference in Modern English between the noun
doctor
and the verb to
doctor
— each exists in the language as a unity of its word-forms and
variants, not as one form
doctor.
It is true that some of the forms are iden-
tical in sound, i.e. homonymous, but there is a great distinction between
them, as they are both grammatically and semantically different.
If we regard such word-pairs as
doctor — to doctor; water — to water;
brief — to brief
from the angle of their morphemic structure, we see that
they are all root-words. On the derivational level, however, one of them
should be referred to derived words, as it belongs to a different part of
speech and is understood through semantic and structural relations with
the other, i.e. is motivated by it. Consequently, the question arises: what
serves as a word-building means in these cases? It would appear that the
noun is formed from the verb (or vice versa) without any morphological
change, but if we probe deeper into the matter, we inevitably come to the
conclusion that the two words differ in the paradigm. Thus it is the para-
digm that is used as a word-building means. Hence, we may define con-
version as the formation of a new word through changes in its paradigm.
1
M. Rayevskaya,
English Lexicology. Kiev, 1957;
D. Vesnik, S. Khidekel.
Exercises in
Modern English Word-Building. M., 1964;
О. Д. Мешков.
Словообразование англий-
ского языка. М., 1976.
1
See also ‘Word-Structure’, § 7, p. 96.
127
§ 16. Definition
It is necessary to call attention to the fact that the paradigm plays a sig-
nificant role in the process of word-formation in general and not only in
the case of conversion. Thus, the noun cooker (in gas-cooker) is formed
from the word to cook not only by the addition of the suffix -er, but also
by the change in its paradigm. However, in this case, the role played by the
paradigm as a word-building means is less obvious, as the word-building
suffix -er comes to the fore. Therefore, conversion is characterised not
simply by the use of the paradigm as a word-building means, but by the
formation of a new word s о l e l у by means of changing its paradigm.
Hence, the change of paradigm is the only word-building means of con-
version. As a paradigm is a morphological category conversion can be de-
scribed as a morphological way of forming words. The following indisput-
able cases of conversion have bееn discussed in linguistic literature:
1)
formation of verbs from nouns and more rarely from other parts of
speech, and
2)
formation of nouns from verbs and rarely from other parts of
speech.
Opinion differs on the possibility of creating adjectives from nouns
through conversion. In the so-called “stone wall” complexes the first
members are regarded by some linguists as adjectives formed from the
corresponding noun-stems by conversion, or as nouns in an attributive
function by others, or as substantival stems by still others so that the whole
combination is treated as a compound word. In our treatment of conver-
sion on the pages that follow we shall be mainly concerned with the indis-
putable cases, i.e. deverbal substantives and denominal verbs.
Conversion has been the subject of a great many linguistic discussions
since 1891 when H. Sweet first used the term in his
New English Gram-
mar.
Various opinions have been expressed on the nature and character of
conversion in the English language and different conceptions of conver-
sion have been put forward.
The treatment of conversion as a morphological way of forming words
accepted in the present book was suggested by the late Prof. A. I. Smirnit-
sky in his works on the English language.
Other linguists sharing, on the whole, the conception of conversion as
a morphological way of forming words disagree, however, as to what
serves here as a word-building means. Some of them define conversion as
a non-affixal way of forming words pointing out that the characteristic
feature is that a certain stem is used for the formation of a different word
of a different part of speech without a derivational affix being added. Oth-
ers hold the view that conversion is the formation of new words with the
help of a zero-morpheme.
The treatment of conversion as a non-affixal word-formation process
calls forth some criticism, it can hardly be accepted as adequate, for it fails
to bring out the specific means making it possible to form, for instance, a
verb from a noun without adding a derivational affix to the base. Besides,
the term a non-affixal word-formation process does not help to distinguish
between cases of conversion and those of sound-
128
interchange, e.g.
to sing
—
song; to feed — food; full — to fill,
etc.
which lie outside the scope of word-formation in Modern English.
The conception of conversion as derivation with a zero-morpheme,
however, merits attention. The propounders of this interpretation of con-
version rightly refer to some points of analogy between affixation and
conversion. Among them is similarity of semantic relations between a de-
rived word and its underlying base, on the one hand, and between words
within a conversion pair,
e.g. 1. action — doer of the action:
to
walk — a walker
(affixation)
to
tramp — a tramp
(conversion);
2. action — result of the action:
to
agree
—
agreement
(affixation)
,
to
find — a find
(conversion),
etc.
They also argue that as the derivational complexity of a derived word
involves a more complex semantic structure as compared with that of the
base, it is but logical to assume that the semantic complexity of a con-
verted word should manifest itself in its derivational structure, even
though in the form of a zero derivational affix.
There are also some other arguments in favour of this interpretation of
conversion, which for lack of space cannot be considered here.
If one accepts this conception of conversion, then one will have to dis-
tinguish between two types of derivation in Modern English: one effected
by employing suffixes and prefixes, the other by using a zero derivational
affix.
There is also a point of view on conversion as a morphological-
syntactic word-building means,
1
for it involves, as the linguists sharing
this conception maintain, both a change of the paradigm and a change of
the syntactic function of the word, e.g.
I need some good paper for my
rooms
and
He is papering his room.
It may be argued, however, that as
the creation of a word through conversion necessarily involves the forma-
tion of a new word-stem, a purely morphological unit, the syntactic factor
is irrelevant to the processes of word-formation proper, including conver-
sion.
Besides, there is also a purely syntactic approach commonly known as
a functional approach to conversion. Certain linguists and lexicographers
especially those in Great Britain and the USA are inclined to regard con-
version in Modern English as a kind of functional change. They define
conversion as a shift from one part of speech to another contending that in
Modern English a word may function as two different parts of speech at
the same time. If we accept this point of view, we should logically arrive
at the conclusion that in Modern English we no longer distinguish be-
tween parts of speech, i.e. between noun and verb, noun and adjective,
etc., for one and the same word cannot simultaneously belong to different
parts of speech. It is common knowledge, however, that the English
word-stock is subdivided into big word classes each having its own
1
See, for instance
, I. V. Arnold.
The English Word. L. — M., 1973.
129
semantic and formal features. The distinct difference between nouns
and
verbs, for instance, as in the case of
doctor — to doctor
discussed above,
consists in the number and character of the categories reflected in their
paradigms. Thus, the functional approach to conversion cannot be justified
and should be rejected as inadequate.
Conversion pairs are distinguished by the
structural identity of the root and phonetic
identity of the stem of each of the two words. Synchronically we deal with
pairs of words related through conversion that coexist in contemporary
English. The two words, e.g.
to break
and
a break,
being phonetically
identical, the question arises whether they have the same or identical
stems, as some linguists are inclined to believe.
1
It will be recalled that the
stem carries quite a definite part-of-speech meaning; for instance, within
the word-cluster
to dress
—
dress — dresser — dressing — dressy,
the
stem
dresser
— carries not only the lexical meaning of the root-morpheme
dress-,
but also the meaning of substantivity, the stem
dressy-
the mean-
ing of quality, etc. These two ingredients — the lexical meaning of the
root-morpheme and the part-of-speech meaning of the stem — form part
of the meaning of the whole word. It is the stem that requires a definite
paradigm; for instance, the word
dresser
is a noun primarily because it has
a noun-stem and not only because of the noun paradigm; likewise, the
word
materialise
is a verb, because first and foremost it has a verbal stem
possessing the lexico-grammatical meaning of process or action and re-
quiring a verb paradigm.
What is true of words whose root and stem do not coincide is also true
of words with roots and stems that coincide: for instance, the word
atom
is
a noun because of the substantival character of the stem requiring the noun
paradigm. The word
sell
is a verb because of the verbal character of its
stem requiring the verb paradigm, etc. It logically follows that the stems of
two words making up a conversion pair cannot be regarded as being the
same or identical: the stem
hand-
of the noun
hand,
for instance, carries a
substantival meaning together with the system of its meanings, such as: 1)
the end of the arm beyond the wrist; 2) pointer on a watch or clock; 3)
worker in a factory; 4) source of information, etc.; the stem
hand-
of the
verb
hand
has a different part-of-speech meaning, namely that of the verb,
and a different system of meanings: 1) give or help with the hand, 2) pass,
etc. Thus, the stems of word-pairs related through conversion have differ-
ent part-of-speech and denotational meanings. Being phonetically identical
they can be regarded as homonymous stems.
A careful examination of the relationship between the lexical meaning
of the root-morpheme and the part-of-speech meaning of the stem within a
conversion pair reveals that in one of the two words the former does not
correspond to the latter. For instance, the lexical meaning of the root-
morpheme of the noun
hand
corresponds to the part-of-speech meaning of
1
See, for instance,
А. И. Смирницкий.
Лексикология английского языка. М., 1956,
с. 71 — 72, also
О. С. Ахманова.
Некоторые вопросы семантического анализа слов. —
Вестн. МГУ, 1957, № 2, с. 70.
130
§ 17. Synchronic Approach
its stem: they are both of a substantival character; the lexical meaning of
the root-morpheme of the verb
hand,
however, does not correspond to the
part-of-speech meaning of the stem: the root-morpheme denotes an object,
whereas the part-of-speech meaning of the stem is that of a process. The
same is true of the noun
fall
whose stem is of a substantival character
(which is proved by the noun paradigm
fall — falls — fall’s — falls’,
whereas the root-morpheme denotes a certain process.
It will be recalled that the same kind of non-correspondence is typical
of the derived word in general. To give but two examples, the part-of-
speech meaning of the stem
blackness
— is that of substantivity, whereas
the root-morpheme black-denotes a quality; the part-of-speech meaning of
the stem
eatable-
(that of qualitativeness) does not correspond to the lexi-
cal meaning of the root-morpheme denoting a process. It should also be
pointed out here that in simple words the lexical meaning of the root cor-
responds to the part-of-speech meaning of the stem, cf. the two types of
meaning of simple words like
black
a,
eat
v,
chair
n,
etc. Thus, by anal-
ogy with the derivational character of the stem of a derived word it is
natural to regard the stem of one of the two words making up a conversion
pair as being of a derivational character as well. The essential difference
between affixation and conversion is that affixation is characterised by
both semantic and structural derivation (e.g.
friend — friendless, dark
—
darkness,
etc.), whereas conversion displays only semantic derivation, i.e.
hand — to hand, fall — to fall, taxi — to taxi,
etc.; the difference be-
tween the two classes of words in affixation is marked both by a special
derivational affix and a paradigm, whereas in conversion it is marked only
by paradigmatic forms.
As one of the two words within a conversion
pair is semantically derived from the other, it
is of great theoretical and practical importance to determine the semantic
relations between words related through conversion. Summing up the
findings of the linguists who have done research in this field we can enu-
merate the following typical semantic relations.
I. Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs).
This is the largest group of words related through conversion. The se-
mantic relations between the nouns and verbs vary greatly. If the noun
refers to some object of reality (both animate and inanimate) the con-
verted verb may denote:
1)
action characteristic of the object, e.g.
ape
n
—
ape
v
— ‘imitate in
a foolish way’;
butcher
n
—
butcher
v — ‘
kill animals for food, cut up a
killed animal’;
2)
instrumental use of the object, e.g.
screw
n
—
screw
v
— ‘fasten
with a screw’;
whip
n
—
whip
v
— ’strike with a whip’;
3)
acquisition or addition of the object, e.g.
fish
n
—
fish
v — ‘
catch
or try to catch fish’;
coat
n
— ‘covering of paint' —
coat
v
— ‘put a coat
of paint on’;
4)
deprivation of the object, e.g.
dust
n —
dust
v — ‘
remove dust from
something’;
skin
n —
skin
v —
’strip off the skin from’; etc.
5*
131
§ 18. Typical Semantic
Rela-