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compared with the number of borrowings recorded. The only true way to
estimate the relation of the native to the borrowed element is to consider
the two as actually used in speech. If one counts every word used, includ-
ing repetitions, in some reading matter, the proportion of native to bor-
rowed words will be quite different. On such a count, every writer-uses
considerably more native words than borrowings. Shakespeare, for exam-
ple, has 90%, Milton 81 %, Tennyson 88%.
1
This shows how important is
the comparatively small nucleus of native words.
Different borrowings are marked by different frequency value. Those
well established in the vocabulary may be as frequent in speech as native
words, whereas others occur very rarely.
The great number of borrowings in English
left some imprint upon the language. The
first effect of foreign influence is observed in the volume of its vocabu-
lary. Due to i t s history the English language, more than any other modern
language, has absorbed foreign elements in its vocabulary. But the adop-
tion of foreign words must not be understood as mere quantitative change.
Any importation into the lexical system brings about semantic and stylistic
changes in the words of this language and changes in its synonymic
groups.
2
It has been mentioned that when borrowed words were identical in
meaning with those already in English the adopted word very often dis-
placed the native word. In most cases, however, the borrowed words and
synonymous native words (or words borrowed earlier) remained in the
language, becoming more or less differentiated in meaning and use. Cf.,
e.g., the sphere of application and meaning of
feed
and
nourish,
try
and
endeavour, meet
and
encounter.
As a result the number of synonymic groups in English greatly in-
creased. The synonymic groups became voluminous and acquired many
words rarely used. This brought about a rise in the percentage of stylistic
synonyms.
Influence of Borrowings on the Semantic Structure of Words.
As
a result
of the differentiation in meaning between synonymous words many native
words or words borrowed earlier narrowed their meaning or sphere of ap-
plication. Thus the word
stool
of Anglo-Saxon origin, which in Old Eng-
lish denoted any article of furniture designed for sitting on, under the in-
fluence of the French borrowing
chair
came to be used as the name for
only one kind of furniture.
Due to borrowings some words passed out of the literary national lan-
guage and have become dialectal, as
ea
поток воды (ОЕ.
ēа
—
поток
воды, река),
heal, hele
—
скрывать, покрывать (ОЕ.
helan),
etc.
Another instance of foreign influence upon the semantic structure of
some English words is s e m a n t i c b o r r o w i n g , i.e. the borrow-
ing of meaning from a word in a foreign language. This often takes place
in English words having common roots with some words in another lan-
guage (international words today reflect this process best), e.g. the
1
O. F. Emerson.
The History of the English Language. N. Y., 1907, p.
126.
2
See ‘Semasiology’, § 21, p. 29.
172
§ 12. Influence of Borrowings
words
pioneer
and
cadres
which are international words have acquired
new meanings under the influence of the Russian
пионер
and
кадры.
Sometimes English words acquire additional meanings under the influence
of related words having quite different roots, e.g. the political meanings of
shock
and
deviation
have come from the Russian
ударный
and
уклон.
Influence of Borrowings on the Lexical Territorial Divergence.
Abun-
dant borrowing intensified the difference between the word-stock of the
literary national language and dialects. On the one hand, a number of
words were borrowed into the literary national language which are not to
be found in the dialects (such as literary words, scientific and political
terminology, etc.). In a number of cases the dialects have preserved some
Anglo-Saxon words which were replaced by borrowings in the literary
language. Thus the Scotch dialect has preserved such words as ken —
знать (ОЕ.
cennan); eke
—
добавление (ОЕ.
ēаса); eath
—
гладкий,
легкий
(
ОE
. ēаđе);
fleme
—
обратить в бегство, изгонять (ОЕ.
fly-
man).
On the other hand, a number of words were borrowed into dialects and
are used throughout the country. Thus, the Scottish and Irish dialects have
suffered much greater Celtic influence than the literary national language
or the Southern dialect, as the Celtic languages were longer spoken in
Scotland and Ireland — some sections of the population use them even
now. The Irish dialect, for example, has the following words of Celtic ori-
gin:
shamrock
—
трилистник,
dun
—
холм,
colleen
—
девушка,
shil-
lelagh
—
дубинка,
etc. In the Northern, Scottish and Eastern dialects there
are many more Scandinavian borrowings than in the national literary lan-
guage as most Scandinavian settlements were found in the north of the
country,
e.g.
busk
— ‘get ready’;
fell
— ‘h il l’;
mun
— ‘mouth’;
wapen-
take
— ‘division of shire’.
Some Scandinavian borrowings ousted native words in dialects. Since
many of these words were of the same root a great number of etymological
doublets appeared, e.g.
dag
—
dew, kirk — church, benk — bench, kist —
chest, garth — yard, loup — leap,
etc.
Influence of Borrowings on the Word-Structure, Word-Clusters and the
System of Word-Building.
The great number of borrowings could not but
leave a definite imprint on the morphological structure of words in Eng-
lish. A number of new structural types appeared in the language. This took
place when the morphological structure of borrowings, obscured at the
time of adoption, became transparent
in
the course of time and served as a
pattern for new formations.
1
Among the affixes which can be considered borrowed by English
2
some are highly-productive and can combine with native and borrowed
items (e.g.
re-, inter-, -able, -er, -ism,
etc.), others are not so productive
1
See ‘Word-Formation’, § 14, p. 125.
2
Some lists of foreign affixes include 200 — 500 items, although the actual number is
much smaller. In these lists no distinction is made between living affixes and those found
only in borrowed words which are indivisible in English morphemically and deri-
\ationally, such as L.
ab-, ad-, amb-;
Gr.
ana-, apo-, cata-
in
words like
abstract, admire,
ambition, anatomy, etc,
173
and combine only with Romanic stems
(со-, de-, trans-, -al, -cy, -ic, -ical,
etc.), still others are often met with in borrowed words, but do not form
any new words in English (
-ous, -ive, -ent,
etc.).
Some borrowed affixes have even ousted those of native origin, e.g. in
Modern English the prefix
pre-
expressing priority of action has replaced
the native prefix
fore-,
which was highly productive in Middle English
and early New English, especially in the 16-17th centuries.
Another imprint of borrowings on “the structural types of words in
English is the appearance of a great number of words with bound mor-
phemes, such as
tolerate, tolerable, tolerance, toleration,
etc.
Clusters of words in English also underwent some changes — both
quantitative and qualitative — due to the influx of borrowings. On the one
hand, many clusters of words were enlarged. Not only were new deriva-
tives formed with the help of borrowed affixes, but some borrowings en-
tered the clusters of words already existing in English. Mention has al-
ready been made of Scandinavian borrowings like
drip, tryst.
1
Some Latin
and French borrowings entered the clusters of words borrowed from
Romanic languages before, e.g. when the French borrowings
exploitation,
mobilisation, militarism, employee, personnel, millionaire
were taken
over into English in the 19th century, they occupied the position of deriva-
tives of the words
exploit, mobilise,
etc. borrowed much earlier.
On the other hand, the influx of borrowings in English has changed the
very nature of word-clusters which now unite not only words of the same
root-morpheme, but also of different synonymous root-morphemes, as in
spring
—
vernal, two — second, dual, sea — maritime,
etc.
Influence of Borrowings on the Phonetic Structure of Words and the
Sound System.
As a result of intense borrowing there appeared in the
English language a number of words of new phonetic structure with
strange sounds and sound combinations, or familiar sounds in unusual po-
sitions. Such are the words with the initial [ps], [pn], [pt] (as in
Gr.
psilan-
thropism)
which are used in English alongside with the forms without the
initial sound [p].
If there were many borrowed words containing a certain phonetic pe-
culiarity, they influenced to some extent the sound system of the language.
Thus abundant borrowing from French in the Middle English period
accounts for the appearance of a new diphthong in English — [oi], which,
according to Prof. B. A. Ilyish, could not have developed from any Old
English sound or sound combination, but came into English together with
such French words as
point, joint, poise.
The initial [sk], which reap-
peared in English together with Scandinavian and other borrowings, is
nowadays a common beginning for a great number of words.
Abundant borrowing also brought about some changes in the distribu-
tion of English sounds, e.g. the Old English variant phonemes [f] and [v]
developed into different phonemes, that is [v] came to be used initially (as
in
vain, valley, vulgar)
and [f] in the intervocal position (as
1
See ‘Etymological Survey ...’, § 5, p. 164. 174
in effect, affect, affair)
which was impossible in Old English. The affri-
cate [dз], which developed at the beginning of the Middle English period
and was found at the end or in the middle of words (as in
bridge —
OE.
bricz
; singe
—
OE.
senczean),
under the influence of numerous borrow-
ings came to be used in the initial position (as in
jungle, journey, ges-
ture).
1.
In spite of the numerous outside linguistic influences and the etymologi-
cal heterogeneity of its vocabulary the English
language is still, in essential characteristics, a
Germanic language. It has retained a groundwork of Germanic words and
grammar.
2.
Borrowing has never been the chief means of replenishing the Eng-
lish vocabulary. Word-formation and semantic development were through-
out the entire history of the language much more productive. Besides most
native words are marked by a higher frequency value.
3.
The great number of borrowings brought with them new phonomor-
phological types, new phonetic, morphological and semantic features. On
the other hand, under the influence of the borrowed element words already
existing in English changed to some extent their semantic structure, col-
locability, frequency and derivational ability.
4.
Borrowing also considerably enlarged the English vocabulary and
brought about some changes in English synonymic groups, in the distribu-
tion of the English vocabulary through spheres of application and in the
lexical divergence between the variants of the literary language and its dia-
lects.
§ 13. Summary and Conclusions
VII. Various Aspects of Vocabulary Units
and Replenishment of Modern English Word-Stock
INTERDEPENDENCE OF VARIOUS ASPECTS
OF THE WORD
The foregoing description of the word dwelt on its
structural, semantic,
stylistic and etymological peculiarities separately. In actual speech all
these aspects are closely interrelated and interdependent and the pattern of
their interdependence largely preconditions the comparative value and
place of the word in Modern English. This interdependence is most viv-
idly brought out in the frequency value attached to the words in the lan-
guage. However it must be pointed out that frequency value alone, impor-
tant as it is, is not an adequate criterion to establish the most important
relationships between words or the most useful section of vocabulary.
The frequency distribution singles out two
classes, all the words of the language fall
into: the so-called n o t i o n a l w o r d s , the largest class, having a
low frequency of occurrence in comparison with a numerically small
group of the so-called f o r m or f u n c t i o n w o r d s . Form words
in terms of absolute figures make a specific group of about 150 units. No-
tional words constitute the bulk of the existing word-stock; according to
the recent counts given for the first 1000 most frequently occurring words
they make 93% of the total number. The results of these counts
l
(given
below graphically) show the numerical interrelation of the two classes.
The division of vocabulary units into notional and form words is based
on the peculiar interrelation of lexical and grammatical types of meaning.
In n o t i o n a l w o r d s which are used in speech as names of objects
of reality, their qualities, names of actions, processes, states the lexical
meaning is predominant. In t h e m a j o r i t y of f o r m w o r d s
(prepositions, articles, conjunctions), which primarily denote various rela-
tions between notional words, it is the grammatical meaning that domi-
nates over their lexical meaning. The difference between notional and
form words may be also described in terms of open and closed sets of vo-
cabulary units.
2
It should also be noted that though the division of all vocabulary units
into notional and form words is valid, in actual speech the borderline be-
tween them is not always clear-cut. Comparing the use, e.g., of the verb
(to) keep in the word-groups
to keep books, to keep a house, to keep
secret
with
to
keep warm, to keep talking
or the verb
(to) turn
in
to
turn one’s head, to turn the toy in one’s fingers
with
to turn pale
176
1
С. С. Fries.
The Structure of English, ch. VI. N. Y., 1952.
2
See ‘Semasiology’, § 7, p. 19.
§ 1. Notional and Form-Words