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the staging of any kind of public demonstration and resulted in a new se-
ries of nouns like a
teach-in, study-in, talk-in, read-in,
etc. which be-
came independent of the existence of the corresponding phrasal verbs. A
third development was the weakening of the earlier meanings to cover any
kind of social gathering by a group, e.g.
think-in, sing-in, fish-in, laugh-
in,
etc.
The second components of compound nouns often become such centres
of creations by analogy as for instance the component
-sick-
in
seasick
and
homesick
gave on analogy car-sick,
air-sick, space-sick.
The compound
noun
earthquake
led to
birthquake
(= population explosion),
youth-
quake
(= a world-wide agitation caused by student uprisings),
starquake
(= a series of rapid changes in the shape of the star). The noun
teenager
led to
golden-ager, skyscraper
to
thighscraper
(= a mini-skirt),
house-
wife
to
house-husband.
The derivative component
-proof
gave
sound-
proof, bullet-proof, fool-proof, kiss-proof, love-proof,
etc.
Productive word-formation has a specific distribution in relation to dif-
ferent spheres of communication, thematic and lexical stylistic groups of
new words. New terminological vocabulary units appear mainly as a result
of composition making extensive use of borrowed root-morphemes, and
affixation with sets of affixes of peculiar stylistic reference,
1
often of
Latin-Greek origin which are scarcely ever used outside this group of
words, for example suffixes
-ite, -ine- -tron,
etc. The suffixes -in, -gen,
-
ogen
are productive in the field of chemistry and biochemistry, e.g.
citrin,
penicillin, carcinogen; -ics
in the naming of sciences as in
radionics, bi-
onics;
the prefixes
non-, pan-,
suffixes -ism,
-ist
are most productive in
political vocabulary, e.g.
Nixonomics, Nixonomist,
etc.
In comparison with specialised vocabulary items, lexical units of stan-
dard-colloquial layer are more often created by affixes of neutral stylistic
reference, by conversion and composition.
New words in different notional classes ap-
pear also as a result of various non-patterned
ways of word creation. The two main types
of non-patterned word-creation are: I. V a r i o u s ways of transforma-
tion of a word-form into a word usually referred to as l e x i c a l i s a -
t i o n and II. S h o r t e n i n g which consists in substituting a part for
a whole. Shortening comprises essentially different ways of word creation.
It involves 1. transformation of a word-group into a word, and 2. a change
of the word-structure resulting in a new lexical item, i.e. clipping.
I. L e x i c a l i s a t i o n . Due to various semantic and syntactic
reasons the grammatical flexion in some word-forms, most often the plural
of nouns, as in, e.g. the nouns
arms, customs, colours,
loses its gram-
matical meaning and becomes isolated from the paradigm of the words
arm, custom, look.
As a result of the re-interpretation of the plural suffix
the word-form
arms, customs
developed a different lexical meaning
‘weapons’ and ‘import duties’ respectively. This led to a complete break
of semantic links with the semantic structure of the words
arm, custom
1
See ‘Word-Formation’, § 13, p. 123,
187
§ 9. Various Ways
of Word-Creation
and thus to the appearance of new words with a different set of grammati-
cal features. It must be noted that there is no unanimity of opinion on
whether all such items should be viewed as new words or only as new
meanings. Different approaches to the problem are connected with the
border-line between polysemy and homonymy
1
and many individual cases
are actually open to doubt.
Essentially the same phenomenon of lexicalisation is observed in the
transition of participles into adjectives. The process is also known as a d -
j e c t i v i s a t i o n . It may be illustrated by a number of adjectives
such as
tired, devoted, interesting, amusing,
etc. which are now felt as
homonymous to the participles of the verbs
to tire, to marry,
etc.
Lexicalisation is a long, gradual historical process which synchronic-
ally results in the appearance of new vocabulary units.
II. S h o r t e n i n g . Distinction should be made between shorten-” ing
which results in new l e x i c a l items and a specific type of shortening
proper only to written speech resulting in numerous g r a p h i c a l abbrevia-
tions which are only signs representing words and word-groups of high fre-
quency of occurrence in various spheres of human activity as for instance,
RD
for
Road
and
St
for
Street
in addresses on envelopes and in letters;
tu
for
tube, aer
for
aerial
in Radio Engineering literature, etc. English graphi-
cal abbreviations include rather numerous shortened ‘ variants of Latin and
French words and word-groups, e.g.: i.e. (L. id est) — ‘that is’;
R.S.V.P.
(Fr.
— Repondez s'il vous plait) — ‘reply please’, etc.
Graphical abbreviations are restricted in use to written speech, occur-
ring only in various kinds of texts, articles, books, advertisements, letters,
etc. In reading, many of them are substituted by the words and phrases that
they represent, e.g.
Dr.
=
doctor, Mr.=mister, Oct.= October,
etc.; the
abbreviations of Latin and French words and phrases are usually read as
their English equivalents. It follows that graphical abbreviations cannot be
considered new lexical vocabulary units.
It is only natural that in the course of language development some
graphical abbreviations should gradually penetrate into the sphere of oral
intercourse and, as a result, turn into self-contained lexical units used both
in oral and written speech. That is the case, for instance, with a.m. ['ei'em]
— ‘in the morning, before noon’; p.m. ['pi:'em] — ‘in the afternoon’;
S.O.S.
['es ‘ou ‘es] (=Save Our Souls) — ‘urgent call for help’, etc.
1. Transformations of word-groups into words involve different types
of lexical shortening: ellipsis or substantivisation, initial letter or syllable
abbreviations (also referred to as acronyms), blendings, etc.
S u b s t a n t i v i s a t i o n consists in dropping of the final nomi-
nal member of a frequently used attributive word-group. When such a
member of the word-group is dropped as, for example, was the case with
a
documentary film
the remaining adjective takes on the meaning and all
the syntactic functions of the noun and thus develops into a new
1
See ‘Semasiology’, § 36, p. 42; ‘Various Aspects...’, § 12, p. 194 — 195, 188
word changing its class membership and becoming homonymous to
the
existing adjective. It may be illustrated by a number of nouns that ap-
peared in this way, e.g.
an incendiary
goes back to
an incendiary bomb,
the finals
to
the final examinations, an editorial
to
an editorial article,
etc. Other more recent creations are
an orbital
(Br. ‘
a highway going
around the suburbs of a city’),
a verbal
(‘a verbal confession introduced as
evidence at a trial’),
a topless
which goes to three different word-groups
and accordingly has three meanings: 1) a topless dress, bathing suit, etc.,
2) a waitress, dancer, etc. wearing topless garments, 3) a bar, night-club
featuring topless waitresses or performers.
Substantivisation is often accompanied by productive suffixation as in,
e.g.,
a one-winger
from one-wing plane,
a two-decker
from
two-deck
bus
or
ship;
it may be accompanied by clipping and productive suffixa-
tion, e.g.
flickers
(coll.)
from
flicking pictures, a smoker
from
smoking
carriage,
etc.
A c r o n y m s and l e t t e r a b b r e v i a t i o n s are lexical ab-
breviations of a phrase. There are different types of such abbreviations and
there is no unanimity of opinion among scholars whether all of them can
be regarded as regular vocabulary units. It seems logical to make distinc-
tion between acronyms and letter abbreviations. Letter abbreviations are
mere replacements of longer phrases including names of well-known or-
ganisations of undeniable currency, names of agencies and institutions,
political parties, famous people, names of official offices, etc. They are not
spoken or treated as words but pronounced letter by letter and as a rule
possess no other linguistic forms proper to words. The following may
serve as examples of such abbreviations:
CBW
= chemical and biological
warfare,
DOD
= Department of Defence (of the USA),
1TV
= Independ-
ent Television, Instructional Television,
SST
= supersonic transport, etc. It
should be remembered that the border-line between letter abbreviations
and true acronyms is fluid and many letter abbreviations in the course of
time may turn into regular vocabulary units. Occasionally letter abbrevia-
tions are given ‘pronunciation spelling’ as for instance
dejay
(= D.J. =
disc jokey),
emce
(= M.C. = master of ceremonies) in which case they
tend to pass over into true acronyms.
A c r o n y m s are regular vocabulary units spoken as words. They
are formed in various ways:
1) from the initial letters or syllables of a phrase, which may be pro-
nounced differently a) as a succession of sounds denoted by the constitu-
ent letters forming a syllabic pattern, i.e. as regular words, e.g.
UNO
['ju:nou] = United Nations Organisations;
NATO
['neitou] = North Atlan-
tic Treaty Organisation,
UNESCO
[ju:'neskou];
laser
['leisa] = = light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation;
radar
['reidэ] = =radio
detection and ranging;
BMEWS [
'bi:mju:z] = Ballistic Missile Early
Warning System; b) as a succession of the alphabetical readings of the
constituent letters as in, e.g.,
YCL
['wai’si:'el] = Young Communist
League;
BBC
['bi:'bi:’si:] = British Broadcasting Corporation;
MP
['em'pi:] = Member of Parliament;
SOS
['es'ou'es] = Save Our Souls.
189
2)
Acronyms may be formed from the initial syllables of each
word
of
the phrase, e.g.
Interpol
= inter/national pol/ice;
tacsatcom
= Tactical
Satellite Communications:
Capcom
= Capsule Communicator (the person
at a space flight centre who communicates with the astronauts during a
space flight).
3)
Acronyms may be formed by a combination of the abbreviation of
the first or the first two members of the phrase with the last member un-
dergoing no change at all, e.g.
V-day
= Victory Day;
H-bomb
= = hydro-
gen bomb;
g-force
= gravity force, etc.
All acronyms unlike letter abbreviations perform the syntactical func-
tions of ordinary words taking on grammatical inflexions, e.g.
MPs
(will
attack huge arms bill),
M.P’s
(concern at . . .). They also serve as deriva-
tional bases for derived words and easily collocate with derivational suf-
fixes as, e.g.
YCLer
(= member of the YCL);
MPess
(= woman-member
of Parliament);
radarman,
etc.
В l e n d i n g s
are the result of conscious creation of words by merg-
ing irregular fragments of several words which are aptly called “splinters.”
1
Splinters assume different shapes — they may be severed from the
source word at a morpheme boundary as in
transceiver
(=transmitter and
receiver), transistor (= transfer and resistor) or at a syllable boundary like
cute (from
execute)
in electrocute, medicare
(from
medical care),
poluti-
cian
(from
pollute
and
politician)
or boundaries of both kinds may be dis-
regarded as in
brunch
(from
breakfast
and
lunch),
smog
(from
smoke
and
fog),
ballute
(from
baloon
and
parachute),
etc. Many blends show some
degree of overlapping of vowels, consonants and syllables or echo the
word or word fragment it replaces. This device is often used to attain pun-
ning effect, as in
foolosopher
echoing
philosopher; icecapade
(= spec-
tacular shows on ice) echoing
escapade; baloonatic
(= baloon and luna-
tic).
Blends are coined not infrequently in scientific and technical language
as a means of naming new things, as trade names in advertisements. Since
blends break the rules of morphology they result in original combinations
which catch quickly. Most of the blends have a colloquial flavour.
2.
Clipping
refers to the creation of new words by shortening a word
of two or more syllables (usually nouns and adjectives) without changing
its class membership. Clipped words, though they often exist together with
the longer original source word function as independent lexical units with
a certain phonetic shape and lexical meaning of their own. The lexical
meanings of the clipped word and its source do not as a rule coincide, for
instance,
doc
refers only to ‘one who practices medicine’, whereas
doctor
denotes also ‘the higher degree given by a university and a person who has
received it’, e.g.
Doctor of Law, Doctor of Philosophy.
Clipped words
always differ from the non-clipped words in the emotive charge and stylis-
tic reference. Clippings indicate an attitude of familiarity on the part of the
user either towards the object denoted or towards the audience, thus
clipped words are characteristic of
1
See
V. Adams.
An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation, L., 1973.
190
colloquial speech. In the course of time, though, many clipped words find
their way into the literary language losing some of their colloquial colour-
ing. Clippings show various degrees of semantic dissociation from their
full forms. Some are no longer felt to be clippings, e.g.
pants (cf. panta-
loons), bus (cf. omnibus), bike (cf. bicycle),
etc. Some of them retain
rather close semantic ties with the original word. This gives ground to
doubt whether the clipped words should be considered separate words.
Some linguists hold the view that in case semantic dissociation is slight
and the major difference lies in the emotive charge and stylistic applica-
tion the two units should be regarded as word-variants (e.g.
exam
and
ex-
amination, lab
and
laboratory,
etc.).
1
Clipping often accompanies other ways of shortening such as substan-
tivisation, e.g.
perm
(from
permanent wave),
op
(from
optical art),
pop
(from
popular music, art, singer,
etc.), etc.
As independent vocabulary units clippings serve as derivational bases
for suffixal derivations collocating with highly productive neutral and sty-
listically non-neutral suffixes
-ie, -er,
e.g.
nightie (cf. nightdress), pant-
ies, hanky (cf. handkerchief).
Cases of conversion are not infrequent,
e.g.
to taxi, to perm,
etc.
There do not seem to be any clear rules by means of which we might
predict where a word will be cut though there are several types into which
clippings are traditionally classified according to the part of the word that
is clipped:
1)
Words that have been shortened at the end—the so-called
a p o c o p e , e.g.
ad
(from
advertisement),
lab
(from
laboratory),
mike
(from
microphone),
etc.
2)
Words that have been shortened at the beginning—the so-called
a p h a e r e s i s , e.g.
car
(from
motor-car),
phone
(from
telephone),
cop-
ter
(from
helicopter),
etc.
3)
Words in which some syllables or sounds have been omitted from the
middle—the so-called s y n c o p e , e.g.
maths
(from
mathematics),
pants
(from
pantaloons),
specs
(from
spectacles),
etc.
4)
Words that have been clipped both at the beginning and at the end,
e.g.
flu
(from
influenza),
tec
(from
detective),
fridge
(from
refrigerator),
etc.
It must be stressed that acronyms and clipping are the main ways of
word-creation most active in present-day English. The peculiarity of both
types of words is that they are structurally simple, semantically non-
motivated and give rise to new root-morphemes.
Borrowing as a means of replenishing the vo-
cabulary of present-day English is of much
lesser importance and is active mainly in the field of scientific -terminology.
It should be noted that many terms are often made up of borrowed mor-
phemes, mostly morphemes from classical languages.
2
1) The present-day English vocabulary, especially its terminological
layers, is constantly enriched by words made up of morphemes of Latin
1
See 'Introduction', § 5, p. 10; 'Various Aspects ...', § 12, p. 196.
2
See 'Etymological Survey', § 5, p. 164.
191
§ 10. Borrowing