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For example, it was already pointed out that the Second World War
and fascist aggression gave currency to a number of new lexical items
such as
Luftwaffe, Blitzkrieg
and others. Words of that type are distin-
guished from other neologisms by their peculiar graphic and sound-form.
They are felt as “alien” elements in the English word-stock and are used
more or less in the same way as words of a foreign language may be used
by English speakers.
This also applies to barbarisms. As a rule barbarisms, e.g.
mutatis
mu-
tandis
(L.),
faux pas
(Fr.)
and others, are included even in the compara-
tively concise dictionaries alongside with English words
l
although it is
rather doubtful whether they are really part of the English vocabulary.
The criterion which serves to describe lexical units as belonging to
M o d e r n English vocabulary is also rather vague. The point is that pro-
found modifications in the vocabulary of a language are occasioned not
only by the appearance and creation of new lexical items but also by the
disappearance of certain lexical units.
2
Some words seem gradually to lose
their vitality, become obsolete and may eventually drop out of the lan-
guage altogether. This was the case with the
OE.
niman — ‘
take’;
ambith
— ’servant’ and a number of others. The process being slow and gradual,
the border-line between “dead” and “living” words in the English word-
stock is not always clearly defined. Such words, e.g., as
welkin, iclept
are
scarcely ever used in present-day English but may be found in poetical
works of outstanding English poets of the nineteenth century. Can we con-
sider them as non-existing in the Mоdern English vocabulary? The answer
to the question as to the number of lexical units in modern English word-
stock will naturally vary depending on the answer given to this particular
question.
According to the recent estimates the
OED
contained 414,825 lexical
units out of which 52,464 are obsolete words, 9,733 alien words, 67,105
obsolete and variant forms of main words.
3
Taking into account the growth of the vo-
cabulary in the last forty years an estimate of
30,000 words in the actual working vocabu-
lary of educated persons today may be con-
sidered reasonable though it comprises a number of non-assimilated, ar-
chaic and occasional words. It should be pointed out, however, that a con-
siderable number of words are scarcely ever used and the meaning of quite
a number of them is unknown to an average educated English layman, e.g.
abalone, abattoir, abele
and the like.
4
It follows that there is a consider-
able difference between the number of lexical items in Modern English
vocabulary and the number of lexical items in actual use. Bу the phrase
“in actual use” we do not imply words and phrases used by any single in-
dividual but
1
See, e. g.,
The Concise Oxford Dictionary,
1957.
2
See ‘Various Aspects ...’, § 6, p. 180.
3
Clarence L. Barnhart.
Methods and Standards for Collecting Citations for English
Descriptive Dictionaries, 1975.
4
See
The Shorter Oxford Dictionary,
1957,
197
§ 14. Number of Vocabulary
Items in Actual Use
and Number of Vocabulary
Units in Modern English
the
vocabulary
actually used and understood by the bulk of English-
speaking people as a whole at a given historical period. It also follows that
not all vocabulary items are of equal practical importance. In this connec-
tion it should be recalled that there is a considerable difference between the
vocabulary units a person uses and those he understands. According to the
data available, the “passive” vocabulary of a “normally educated person”
comprises about 30,000 words. At best about 20,000 are actually used in
speech. Of these not all the words are equally important.
The relative “value” of lexical items is dependent on how frequently
this or that particular unit occurs in speech and on the range of application
of these units. 4,000 — 5,000 of most frequently occurring words are pre-
sumed to be amply sufficient for the daily needs of an average member of
the given speech community. It is obvious that these 4,000 — 5,000 com-
prise ordinary words which are as a rule polysemantic and characterised by
neutral stylistic reference.
1
Specialised vocabulary units (special words and
terminology) are naturally excluded.
It should not be inferred from the above that frequency alone is an ade-
quate criterion to establish the most useful list of words. There are, espe-
cially in science, words that appear very rarely even in a large corpus, but
are central to the “concepts of a whole science.
As is well known terminology in various fields of scientific inquiry
comprises many peculiar vocabulary units the bulk of which is made up of
Latin or Greek morphemes. Terms possess a number of common features
in all European languages. Terms are as a rule used by comparatively small
groups of professionals and certainly not by the language community as a
whole. Most of them are to a certain extent “international”, i.e. understand-
able to specialists irrespective of their nationality. Compare for example
Russ. зуб
—
зубы,
English
tooth — teeth
and the corresponding phonetic
terms
Russ. дентальный,
Eng.
dental.
Compare also Eng.
radio —
Russ.
радио,
Eng.
electronics
—
Russ. электроника,
etc. Special words and
terms make up the bulk of neologisms and the question naturally arises
whether terms belong to common English vocabulary items. Nevertheless
they are of great importance for those who are working in this or that
branch of science or technology.
1. The comparative value and place of the
word in the vocabulary system is conditioned
by the interdependence of the structural, se-
mantic, stylistic and etymological aspects of the words which is brought
out most vividly in the frequency value attached to each word.
2. On the basis of the interrelation of lexical and grammatical types of
meaning words fall into two classes: notional words and form words — a
numerically small class of words with the highest frequency value.
1
Some figures found in Pierre Guiraud’s book
Les caractères statistiques du
vocabulaire
(Presses Universitaires de France, 1954) may be of interest to language learn-
ers. The counts conducted by the author show that out of 20,000 words the first 100 most
frequently occurring words make up 60% of any text; 1,000 — 85%; 4,000 — 97,5%, all
the rest (about 15,000) - 2,5%.
198
§ 15. Summary
and Conclusions
3.
Words of high frequency value are mostly characterised by
polysemy, structural simplicity, neutral stylistic reference and emotive
charge. They generally belong either to the native words or to the early
borrowings which are already fully or almost fully assimilated.
4.
Frequency also reflects the interdependence and comparative impor-
tance of individual meanings within the word. The basic meaning of the
word is at the same time the meaning with the highest frequency value.
5.
The development of vocabulary is largely due to the rapid flow of
events, the progress of science and technology and emergence of new
concepts in different fields of human activity.
6.
Distinction should be made between the qualitative growth of the
vocabulary as a result of semantic extension of the already available
words and the numerical replenishing of vocabulary as a result of appear-
ance of new vocabulary units.
7.
There are three principal ways of the numerical growth of vocabu-
lary: a) productive word-formation, b) various non-patterned ways of
word creation, c) borrowings.
8.
Productive word-formation is the most powerful source of the nu-
merical growth of present-day English vocabulary.
There are various ways of non-patterned word creation. The two main
types are lexicalisation and shortening.
9. The two main types of shortening are: a) transformations of word-
groups into words which involve substantivisation, acronyms and blend-
ings and b) clippings which consist in a change of the word-structure.
10.
Borrowing as a source of vocabulary extension takes the shape of
borrowing of morphemes, borrowing of actual words and loan-
translations. Especially active nowadays is the formation of new words
out of borrowed morphemes.
11.
The exact number of vocabulary units in Modern English cannot
be stated with any degree of certainty for a number of reasons:
a) Constant growth of Modern English word-stock.
b) Intrinsic heterogeneity of Modern English vocabulary.
c)
Divergent views concerning the nature of basic vocabulary units
connected with some crucial debatable problems of lexicology: ho-
monymy, polysemy, phraseology, nonce-words.
d)
The absence of a sharp and distinct border-line between English and
foreign words and between modern and outdated English vocabulary
units.
12. There is a considerable difference between the number of vocabu-
lary units in Modern English word-stock and the number of vocabulary
items in actual use.
The selection and number of vocabulary items for teaching purposes
depends on the aims set before language learners.
VIII. Variants and Dialects of
the English Language
To this point we have been dealing with the vocabulary of the English
language as if there were only one variety of this language. We shall now
turn to the details in which the language of some English speakers differs
from that of others, we shall see what varieties of the language in question
there are and how they are interconnected.
Every language allows different kinds of variations: geographical or
territorial, perhaps the most obvious, stylistic, the difference between the
written and the spoken form of the standard national language and others.
We shall be concerned here with the territorial variations, the others being
the domain of stylistics.
For historical and economic reasons the English language has spread
over vast territories. It is the national language of England proper, the
USA, Australia, New Zealand and some provinces of Canada. It is the of-
ficial language in Wales, Scotland, in Gibraltar and on the island of Malta.
The English language was also at different times enforced as an official
language on the peoples who fell under British rule or US domination in
Asia, Africa and Central and South America. The population of these
countries still spoke their mother tongue or had command of both lan-
guages. After World War II as a result of the national liberation movement
throughout Asia and Africa many former colonies have gained independ-
ence and in some of them English as the state language has been or is be-
ing replaced by the national language of the people inhabiting these coun-
tries (by Hindi in India, Urdu in Pakistan, Burmanese in Burma, etc.).
though by tradition it retains there the position of an important means of
communication.
The role of the English language in these countries is often overrated,
apart from other reasons, through not differentiating between the function
of the language as a mother tongue and its function as a means of commu-
nication between the colonisers and the native population.
THE MAIN VARIANTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
It is natural that the English language is not
used with uniformity in the British Isles and
in Australia, in the USA and in New Zealand,
in Canada and in India, etc. The English lan-
guage also has some peculiarities in Wales, Scotland, in other parts of the
British Isles and America. Is the nature of these varieties the same?
Modern linguistics distinguishes territorial variants of a national lan-
guage and local dialects. Variants of a language are regional varieties of a
standard literary language characterised by some minor peculiarities in the
sound system, vocabulary and grammar and by
200
§ 1. General Characteristics
of the English Language
in Different Parts of the
English-Speaking World
their own literary norms. Dialects are varieties of a language used as a
means of oral communication in small localities, they are set off (more or
less sharply) from other varieties by some distinctive features of pronun-
ciation, grammar and vocabulary.
Close inspection of the varieties mentioned above reveals that they are
essentially different in character. It is not difficult to establish that the va-
rieties spoken in small areas are local dialects. The status of the other va-
rieties is more difficult to establish.
It is over half a century already that the nature of the two main variants
of the English language, British and American (Br and AE) has been dis-
cussed. Some American linguists, H. L. Mencken for one, speak of two
separate languages with a steady flood of linguistic influence first (up to
about 1914) from Britain to America, and since then from America to the
British Isles. They even proclaim that the American influence on British
English is so powerful that there will come a time when the American
standard will be established in Britain.
1
Other linguists regard the lan-
guage of the USA as a dialect of English.
Still more questionable is the position of Australian English
(AuE)
and
Canadian English
(CnE).
The differences between the English language as spoken in Britain, the
USA, Australia and Canada are immediately noticeable in the field of
phonetics. However these distinctions are confined to the articulatory-
acoustic characteristics of some phonemes, to some differences in the use
of others and to the differences in the rhythm and intonation of speech.
The few phonemes characteristic of American pronunciation and alien to
British literary norms can as a rule be observed in British dialects.
The variations in vocabulary, to be considered below, are not very
numerous. Most of them are divergences in the semantic structure of
words and in their usage.
The dissimilarities in grammar like
AE
gotten, proven
for
BE
got,
proved
are scarce. For the most part these dissimilarities consist in the
preference of this or that grammatical category or form to some others.
For example, the preference of Past Indefinite to Present Prefect, the for-
mation of the Future Tense with
will
as the only auxiliary verb for all per-
sons, and some others. Recent investigations have also shown that the Pre-
sent Continuous form in the meaning of Future is used twice as frequently
in
BE
as in the American, Canadian and Australian variants; infinitive
constructions are used more rarely in
AE
than in
BE
and
AuE
and passive
constructions are, on the contrary, more frequent in America than in Brit-
ain and in Australia.
Since
BE, AE
and
AuE
have essentially the same grammar system,
phonetic system and vocabulary, they cannot be regarded as different lan-
guages. Nor can they be referred to local dialects; because they serve all
spheres of verbal communication in society, within their territorial area
they have dialectal differences of their own; besides they differ far less
than local dialects (e.g. far less than the dialects of Dewsbury and
1
It is noteworthy that quite a few prominent American linguists do not share this
opinion (e. g. A. S. Baugh, W. N. Francis and others).
201