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English even at a moderately advanced stage of learning will have pitfalls
and needs of his own: among the other things he may have difficulties
with the use of the most “simple” words (such as
play, wipe),
he may not
know the names for commonest things in everyday life (such as
oatmeal,
towel, rug)
and he will experience in this or that degree interference of his
mother tongue.
On the one hand, we have users who for the most part have command
of the language, who have fluent speech habits, since this language is their
mother tongue; they need guidance as to which of the usage they come
across is correct. On the other hand, we have users that have a limited vo-
cabulary and no speech habits or very weak ones and who have stable
speech habits in another language which is their native tongue and these
native speech habits interfere with the foreign ones. That is why these us-
ers must be given thorough instruction in how the words are to be used and
this instruction must be given against the background of the learners’ na-
tive language.
That is why the word-lists and the sort of directions for use for the
benefit of the foreign adult learners of English must differ very widely (if
not fundamentally) from those given to English or American schoolchil-
dren.
Hence the word-books of this group are characterised by the following
features:
1)
by their strictly limited word-list, the selection of which is based on
carefully thought over scientific principles;
2)
the great attention given to the functioning of lexical units in speech;
3)
a strong prescriptive, normative character;
4)
by their compilation with the native linguistic background in view.
Learner’s dictionaries may be classified in
accordance with different principles, the main
of which are: 1) the scope of the word-list and 2) the nature of the informa-
tion afforded.
From the point of view of the scope (volume) of the word-list they fall
into two groups. Those of the first group contain all lexical units that the
prospective user may need, in the second group only the most essential
and important words are selected. To the first group we can refer A. S.
Hornby’s
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
(50,000 lexical units)
and M. West’s
International Reader’s Dictionary
(about 24,000 units); to
the second group —
A Grammar of English Words
by H. Palmer (1,000
words), and
The English-Russian Learner’s Dictionary
by S. K. Folom-
kina and H. M. Weiser (3,500 units).
As to the information afforded by learner’s dictionaries lexicographers
and methodologists seem to have agreed that there should be a whole series
of them. There must be a group of dictionaries presenting different aspects
of the vocabulary: showing mainly the semantic structure of words (ex-
planatory), presenting the syntagmatic relations between words (dictionaries
of collocations), providing information: about the word’s structure (deriva-
tional), supplying synonymous and antonymous words, etc.
227
§ 15. Classification
of Learner’s Dictionaries
Another grouping of dictionaries reflects the practice of teaching dif-
ferent aspects of speech. The word-books having as their goal the ability to
read scientific and technical literature in a foreign language will need a
vast word-list ensuring adequate comprehension of written speech. Teach-
ing oral speech habits requires a dictionary that contains a selected list of
a c t i v e words explained from the point of view of their use.
Since learners of different linguistic background will have different pit-
falls in mastering the same language, will need different directions for use,
different restrictive remarks, each pair of languages requires its own dic-
tionaries, dictionaries based on a contrastive study of the learner’s native
tongue and the language to be learned.
1
In this connection it must be said that Hornby’s dictionary, with all its
merits and advantages, has an essential demerit — it does not take into
account the user’s linguistic background, so it cannot foresee and prevent
the possible language problems of this or that national group of English
learners.
Not long ago Soviet lexicographers came to the opinion that separate
reference books are called for teachers and learners. As far as dictionaries
of English go, perhaps the first attempts at producing dictionaries for
teachers are the reference books
Adjectival Collocations
and
Verbal Collo-
cations.
Those are the main types of dictionaries considered necessary to ensure
the process of foreign language teaching. As to the present state of
learner’s lexicography, it may be characterised as just coming into being,
as the already existing dictionaries are few in number and they do not
make a system, rather some separate links of a system.
As to the information they provide they may be divided into two
groups: those giving equal attention to the word’s semantic characteristics
and the way it is used in speech (these may be called learner’s dictionaries
proper) and those concentrating on detailed treatment of the word’s lexical
and grammatical valency (dictionaries of collocations).
To learner’s dictionaries proper issued in English-speaking countries
we may refer, for example,
The Progressive English Dictionary
and
An
English Reader’s Dictionary
by A. S. Hornby and E. С Parnwell designed
for beginners, as well as
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Cur-
rent English
by A. S. Hornby and
The New Horizon Ladder Dictionary of
the English Language
by J. R. Shaw with J. Shaw for more advanced stu-
dents.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English
by A.
Hornby has achieved international recognition as a most valuable practical
reference book to English as a foreign language. It contains 50,000 units
and is compiled on the basis of
COD
to meet the needs of advanced for-
eign learners of English and language teachers. It aims among other things
at giving detailed information about the grammatical and partly lexical
valency of words.
1
We are now speaking about the nature of information, not the language it is couched
in. Thus we may imagine several Anglo-Russian dictionaries, each designed for a separate
group of learners with a different linguistic background.
228
The New Horizon Ladder Dictionary
includes 5000 of the most fre-
quently used words in written English. It is called
Ladder Dictionary
be-
cause the words are divided in it into five levels or ladder rungs of ap-
proximately 1000 each, according to the frequency of their use (a figure in
brackets attached to each word shows to which thousand the word be-
longs).
Compiled in our country is the
English-Russian Dictionary of Most
Commonly Used Words
prepared by V. D. Arakin, H. M. Weiser and S. K.
Folomkina under Prof. I. V. Rakhmanov’s direction. This is a vocabulary
minimum of 3250 words, typical word-groups and phraseological units
selected for active mastery in Soviet secondary school.
The Learner’s English-Russian Dictionary
by S. Folomkina and H.
Weiser does not, strictly speaking, belong to the group of dictionaries un-
der consideration, as it is designed for use by English-speaking students of
the Russian language, but is helpful as well when learning English. It con-
tains about 3500 words.
The word-books given above differ in many respects: they are either
monolingual or polylingual, they provide different information, they differ
in the kind of the intended user (learners of the English language who have
reached different stages in the course of their studies, adults or children of
different linguistic background — English-speaking learners of Russian)
and in aim (an aid to oral speech — the development of reading and writ-
ing skills) and in other features. However these dictionaries have some
traits in common that distinguish them from the word-books considered in
the preceding sections. They all aim at teaching how to speak, write, etc.,
while the tendency in modern English lexicography is not to prescribe as
to usage, but to record what is actually used by speakers.
Dictionaries of collocation contain words which freely combine with
the given head-word. The few reference books of this kind known to us
belong to the pen of foreign compilers. For example, A. Reum’s
Diction-
ary of English Style
is designed for the Germans,
Kenkyusha’s New Dic-
tionary of English Collocations
is intended for the Japanese,
Adjectival
Collocations in Modern English
by T. S. Gorelik and
Verbal Collocations
in Modern English
by R. Ginzburg, S. Khidekel, E. Mednikova and A.
Sankin are designed for Russian school teachers and students of English.
Each of the two dictionaries of collocations prepared by Soviet lin-
guists presents the collocability of 375 words that are used in Soviet
school text-books. The presentation of the word’s grammatical and lexical
valency is based on identical principles.
Compilers of learner’s dictionaries have to
tackle the same cardinal problems as those of
ordinary explanatory and translation diction-
aries, but they often solve them in their own way, besides they have some
specific policies to settle on to meet the needs of language learners to
whom the book will be addressed.
The common purpose of learner’s dictionaries is to give information on
what is currently accepted usage, besides most compilers seek to choose
229
§ 16. Selection
of Entry Words
the lexical units that foreign learners of English are likely to need. There-
fore not only are obsolete, archaic and dialectal words excluded, but” also
technical and scientific terms, substandard words and phrases, etc. Collo-
quial and slang words as well as foreign words of common occurrence in
English are included only if they are of the sort likely to be met by stu-
dents either in reading or in conversation. Moreover some of the common
words may be omitted if they are not often encountered in books, news-
papers, etc. or heard over the radio and in conversation.
Space is further saved by omitting certain derivatives and compounds
the meaning of which can be easily inferred.
Alternative spellings and pronunciations are avoided, only the more
accepted forms are listed.
Various criteria have been employed in choosing words for learner’s
dictionaries. In the first place the selection of words is based on the fre-
quency principle.
Frequency value, an important characteristic of lexical units, is closely
connected with their other properties. That is why the word-counts enable
the compiler to choose the most important, the most frequently used
words.
However many methodologists and compilers of learner’s dictionaries
have a tendency to exaggerate the significance of the frequency criterion.
The research done in different countries (in our country and in France, for
example) has shown that the frequency tables, helpful ‘as they are in the
compilation of a vocabulary minimum, do not in themselves present the
vocabulary minimum. While it is indisputable that every high-frequency
word is useful, it is not every useful word that is frequent (e.g.
carrots,
fork, stamp,
etc.). Consequently frequency cannot be the only point to be
considered in selecting items for learner’s dictionaries as well as for other
teaching materials. It must be complemented by some other principles,
such as the words’ collocability, stylistic reference, derivational ability,
semantic structure, etc.
1
The order of arrangement of meanings followed
in learner’s dictionaries is usuall y e mp i r i c ,
t ha t is b egi nn i n g wi t h the main meaning to minor ones. Besides the
following principles of arrangement are considered proper for language
learners: literal uses before figurative, general uses before special, com-
mon uses before rare and easily understandable uses before difficult.
Each of these principles is subject to the limitation “other things being
equal” and all are subject to the principle that that arrangement is best for
any word which helps the learners most.
E.g. in Hornby’s entry for
commit
the first meaning is ‘perform’ (a
crime, foolish act, etc.) and its primary meaning ‘entrust’ is given as its
second meaning.
1
In the dictionary under Prof. I. V. Rakhmanov’s direction the choice of words is
based upon three main principles: 1) combinability, 2) lack of stylistic limitations, 3) se-
mantic value, and four additional principles: 1) word-building ability, 2) polysemy, 3)
syntactical valency, 4) frequency.
230
§ 17. Presentation of Meanings
But this is not always the case. For instance, the first meaning of the
word
revolution
given by Hornby is ‘act of revolving or journeying
round’ and not ‘complete change, great reversal of conditions, esp. in
methods of government’, which is more common nowadays. Thus the
compilers preserve the historical order of meanings in this case.
In monolingual learner’s dictionaries the same types of definitions are
used, as in ordinary monolingual explanatory word-books, but their pro-
portion is different. Encyclopaedic definitions are usually used more
rarely, the role of descriptive definitions is much greater.
Compare, for instance, the definition for
coal
taken from the
Ladder
Dictionary
with that from
COD
given above.
1
coal
n
. a black, hard substance that burns and gives off heat.
It would be wrong to think however that the definitions in learner’s
dictionaries are always less complete than in the dictionaries designed for
native users. More often than not these definitions are not so condensed in
form and they are more complete in content, because the compilers have to
make up for the user’s possible inadequacy in command of the language
and lack of knowledge of some realia.
Compare, for example the two entries for
prep
given below:
COD II
2
(abbr
prep)
preparation of lessons as part of school routine;
OALD
[U]
3
(colloq abbr
prep)
(time given to) preparing lessons or writing
exercises, after normal school hours (esp at GB public or
grammar schools):
two hours’ prep; do one’s French prep;
In learner’s dictionaries cross-references are for the most part reduced
to a minimum.
Compilers of learner’s dictionaries attach great importance to the lan-
guage in which the definition is couched, the goal being to word them in
the simplest terms that are consistent with accuracy. Some compilers see
to it that the definitions are couched in language which is commoner and
more familiar to the language learner than the words defined.
Some lexicographers select a special defining vocabulary held to be the
commonest words in English or those first learnt by foreigners. For exam-
ple, in the
International Reader’s Dictionary
the word-list of 24,000 items
is defined within a vocabulary of 1490 words selected by M. West.
In some learner’s dictionaries pictorial material is widely used as a
means of semantisation of the words listed. Pictures cannot only define the
meanings of such nouns as
dike, portico, domes, columns, brushes,
etc.,
but sometimes also of adjectives, verbs and adverbs.
E.g. in Hornby’s dictionary, the definitions of the adjective
concen-
trated,
the verb
clasp
and the adverb
abreast
are illustrated with the pic-
tures of concentrated circles, clasped hands, and boys walking three
abreast.
1
See ‘Fundamentals of English Lexicography’, § 9, p. 220.
2
The parallel bars in
COD = not
US.
3
U = uncountable
231