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45
V.
The degree of
vowel checkness
or the
character of vowel end
concerns the quality of vowels in stressed syllables under the influence of
the following consonant.
According to it all English long vowels are free as their pronunciation
doesn’t depend on the next consonant phoneme.
The pronunciation of English short vowels is checked when they are
stressed. The degree of checkness is terminated by the following conso-
nant: it is greater before a voiceless consonant and smaller before a voiced
one or a sonorant.
But this characteristic has no phonological value and it is important
only for practical application in language teaching.
VI.
The
degree of tenseness
characterizes the state of the organs of
speech at the moment of vowel production. Special instrumental analysis
shows that long vowels are tense while short ones are lax. This characte-
ristic is also non-phonological and it is used only in teaching practice.
The criteria of vowel checkness and tenseness are phonologically
non-relevant, because they are realized only in connection with other
phonetic phenomena, namely the syllabic structure and the word stress.
Thus in the word
pity
['pıtı] the sounds [ı] in the first and second syllables
have different degrees of checkness and tenseness because of the diffe-
rences in their placement and accentuation.
3.4. Problem of diphthongs and diphthongoids
The classification of English simple and complex vowels gets diffe-
rent interpretation in Russian and foreign linguistics.
Monophthongs are singled out by all phoneticians who consider that
these are simple vowels with more or less stable position of the articulating
speech organs. But the number of monophthongs may differ in some clas-
sifications because of various points of view on the phonemic status of
complex vowels — diphthongs and diphthongoids. For example, some fo-
reign linguists liquidate diphthongs as unit phonemes in accordance with
the principle of structural simplicity and economy, others single out both
monophthongs and diphthongs but reject the existence of diphthongoids.
The English diphthongs are the object of sharp phonological debates.
The
question
is: whether they are biphonemic sound complexes or com-
46
posite monophonemic entities? Modern linguistics uses a complex ap-
proach to the solution of this problem.
According to the rules of articulatory indivisibility N.S. Trubetskoy
states that diphthongs are unisyllabic, because:
— their parts can’t belong to different syllables;
— they present one phoneme with gliding articulation;
— their length doesn’t exceed the length of a single phoneme.
According to the criterion of morphological indivisibility added by
L.R. Zinder English diphthongs can‘t be separated, because they belong
to one morpheme:
buy
[baı] —
buyer
['baı-ǩ]. Thus English diphthongs
differ from Russian biphonemic combinations like [ай, ой]:
чай
[чай]
—
чаю
[ча-йу]
, стой
[стой]
— стою
[сто-йу].
Taking this information into consideration, phoneticians grant mono-
phonemic status to the English diphthongs on the basis of articulatory,
morphonological and syllabic indivisibility combined with the criterion
of duration:
— English diphthongs are pronounced within a single articulatory
effort;
— neither morpheme nor syllable boundary can separate the nucleus
and the glide (
saying
['seı-ıŋ],
crying
['kraı-ıŋ],
enjoying
[ın-
'djOı-ıŋ],
slower
['slǩu-ǩ],
ploughing
['plau-ıŋ],
clearer
['klıǩ-rǩ],
airing
['εǩ-rıŋ],
poorer
['puǩ-rǩ]);
— the duration of diphthongs coincides with the one of long monoph-
thongs in the same phonetic context (
site
[saıt] —
seat
[si:t],
coat
[kǩut] —
caught
[ko:t]).
With the help of commutation test V.A. Vassilyev shows that any
diphthong can form oppositions with practically all vowels and thus de-
fines the monophonemic status of diphthongs (
bite — bit
[baıt — bıt];
bite — but
[baıt — b
∧
t];
bite — bought
[baıt — bo:t]; etc.).
The monophonemic character of English diphthongs is also proved
by native speakers’ intuition who perceive these sound complexes as a
single unit element.
Besides diphthongs Russian linguists also define such a subclass of
English vowels as diphthongoids on the basis of slight articulatory insta-
47
bility in the pronunciation of [i:, u:] which becomes gradually stronger in
modern English.
The division of English vowels into monophthongs, diphthongs and
dipthongoids is very important for language teaching since there are no
such sounds in Russian. Russian sound combinations like [йа, йо, йу, ой,
ай, ау, уа] (
яд, йод, юг, рой, край, мяукать, вуаль
) are biphonemic
clusters of two vowels or a vowel and the sonorant [й], when both ele-
ments are pronounced with equal energy and distinction.
So special attention should be given to pronunciation teaching of
English diphthongs, presenting a phonemic entity of two elements, the
first of them being a strong and distinct nucleus and the second — a weak
and indistinct glide. The pronunciation of diphthongoids characterized by
a certain degree of instability, which is greater in comparison with
monophthongs and smaller in comparison with diphthongs, also requires
special attention.
3.5. Problem of vowel length
Vowel length or vowel quantity has been the point of disagreement
among phoneticians for a long time.
From practical point of view the quantity of a vowel in connected
speech is presupposed by many factors:
— its proper length;
— the phonetic context (
be — bead — beat
[bi: — bi·d — bit]);
— the word stress (in stressed syllables vowels are longer, cf.
forecast
['fo:ka:st] —
to forecast
[fɔ'ka:st]);
— the number of syllables (vowels are shorter in polysyllabic words:
verse
[vǩ:s] —
university
[
'
junı'vǩ·sıtı]);
— the syllabic structure (in words with V, CV, CCV type vowels are
longer than in VC, CVC, CCVC type: [ǩ:] in
err
and
earn
; [ju:]
in
dew
and
duty
);
— other factors (the position in the tone group, the position in the
utterance, the tempo of the utterance, the type of pronunciation,
the style of pronunciation, etc.).
48
But the problem phonology investigates is whether variations in
quantity are meaningful and thus can be treated as a relevant feature when
characterizing the system of English vowels.
Foreign scholars usually follow the approach of an outstanding British
phonetician D. Jones who underlines the phonological relevance of vo-
wel quantity. He states that words may be distinguished from one another
with the help of oppositions of different vowel length called chronemes
(
deed — did, fool — full
).
An outstanding Russian phonetician V.A. Vassilyev objects to this
point of view and considers that the difference in the quantity of vowels
should be subordinate to the difference in their quality. This conclusion
is based on two laws characterizing any language system:
(1) a relevant feature must characterize a number of units;
(2) a feature is systemic if it does not depend on the context.
The first law
can be proved with the help of distinctive oppositions
containing vowels of different length. Most English vowels are character-
ized by the predominance of other distinctive features besides quantita-
tive correlation:
— in [i:, u:] vs.
[ı, u] — diphthongoids vs. monophthongs;
— in
[ǩ:] vs. [ǩ] — stressed vocalism
(a vowel seldom occurs in
unstressed syllables) vs. unstressed vocalism (a vowel never oc-
curs in stressed syllables);
— in [a:] vs. [
∧
] — back open vs. central mid characteristics.
This gives the ground not to treat vowel length as a phonologically
relevant feature.
The second law
shows that besides a great deal of other factors the
absolute length of vowels greatly depends on phonetic context. Long
vowels are the longest in terminal positions (
bee, bar
), they are shorter
before voiced consonants (
bead, hard
), and the shortest before voiceless
consonants (
beet, cart
). Still the words like
bit
and
beat
are perceived as
different, because vowels differ in quality:
[ı] is a front retracted pure
monophthongs whereas [i:] is a diphthongized vowel.
So vowel length can’t be considered a minimal distinctive feature
since it varies under the influence of different phonetic context and serves
as an incidental feature characterizing vowel sounds of a certain quality.
49
Such an approach to phonological relevance of the quantity of English
vowels is shared by most Russian and many British phoneticians.
The problem of vowel length also concerns the status of phoneme
[æ]. It is treated as a historically short vowel that tends to be lengthened
before lenis consonants [b, d, g, m, n, z] almost the same as long vowels.
Nowadays the most part of phoneticians considers that [æ] belongs to the
subclass of long vowels on the basis of its qualitative — quantitative rela-
tions in the opposition [æ] vs. [ǩ].
Seminar 3
1. Give reasons why the opposition ‘vowels vs. consonants’ is consi-
dered to be a linguistic universal.
2. How is the distinction between vowels and consonants understood
on the material side of phonetic units’ representation?
3. What is the way to represent vowels and consonants on the func-
tional level?
4. Characterize consonants as a class of speech sounds. How many
consonant phonemes exist in English?
5. Point out the main principles of consonant classification. Explain the
divergences of the articulatory and phonological classifications.
6. Give an overview of the articulatory classification of consonants
compared to their phonological classification. Discuss the relevance
of the following points:
a) the degree of noise and the manner of articulation;
b) the place of articulation;
c) the presence or absence of voice;
d) the position of the soft palate.
7. Characterize vowels as a class of speech sounds. How many vowel
phonemes exist in English?
8. Point out the main principles of vowel classification. Explain the
divergences of the articulatory and phonological classifications.