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55
— regressive voicing or devoicing in closely connected pairs of
words, which usually include two functional words or a combina-
tion of a notional and a functional word (
I have to do this. She’s
fine. Of course.
).
It’s important to mention that English consonants are not subjected to
voiced-voiceless or voiceless-voiced assimilation within non-compound
words (
anecdote
,
birthday
,
obstinate
) or in free combinations of two no-
tional words (s
it down
,
this book
,
these socks
,
white dress
).
II.
Accommodation
is the adaptive modification of a consonant un-
der the influence of a neighbouring vowel which includes the following
changes:
— labialization of consonants under the influence of the following
back vowels [
ɔ, o:, u, u:,
a:], resulting in lip rounding (
pool
,
rude
,
ball
,
car
);
— labialization of consonants under the influence of the following
or preceding front vowels
[ı, i:], resulting in lip spreading (
tea
— eat
,
feet — leaf
,
keep — leak
,
pill — tip
);
— palatalization of consonants under the influence of front vowels [ı,
i:] (cf:
part — pit
,
top — tip
,
far — feet
,
hard — hit
,
chance —
cheese
).
III.
Elision
is a complete loss of sound in the word structure in con-
nected speech. The following examples of consonant elision are observed
in modern English:
— loss of [h] in personal and possessive pronouns
he
,
his
,
her
,
hers
and the forms of the auxiliary verb
have
(
What has he done?
);
— loss of [l] when preceded by [o:] (
always
);
— loss of plosives [p, t, k, b, d, g] in clusters followed by another
consonant (
next day
,
just one
,
last time
,
old man
);
— loss of
[θ,
ð] in clusters with [s, z, f, v] (
months
,
clothes
,
fifth
,
sixth
);
— loss of [v] before other consonants in rapid speech (
give me your
pen
).
IV.
Insertion
is a process of sound addition to the word structure. There
are the following cases of this consonant modification type in English:
56
— linking [r], which reveals its potential pronunciation
(
car
z
owner
);
— intrusive [r] pronounced in word combinations with vowels in the
word-final and word-starting positions (
china
z
and glass
);
— inserted [j] after word-final diphthongs gliding to [ı] (
saying
,
trying
);
— inserted [w] after word-final diphthongs gliding to [u] (
going
,
al-
lowing
);
— inserted [t∫, ʤ] instead of word-final [t, d] before [j] (
could
you
).
2.2. Modifications of vowels in connected speech
The main types of sound modifications characterizing vowels are re-
duction and elision.
I.
Reduction
is the weakening of vowels in unstressed positions, de-
termined by the position of a vowel, the stress structure of a word or the
tempo of speech. This type of vowel modification may be qualitative,
quantitative, or both.
1. Quantitative reduction is the decrease of vowel quantity when its
length is shortened under the influence of the following factors:
— word stress: vowels in unstressed positions are usually shorter (cf:
Is
/
he
[hi:] or
\
she to blame?
vs.
At 'last he
[hi]
has
\
done it
.);
— position of a vowel in a word: the positional length of English
vowels is the longest in the end, shorter before a lenis consonant,
and the shortest before a fortis consonant (cf:
he
[hi:] —
heel
[hi·l] —
heat
[hit]).
2. Qualitative reduction is the loss of vowel quality (colour) which gene-
rally results in the following changes:
— reduction of the vowels of full value to the neutral sound
[ǩ] in
unstressed positions (
a
nalyze
['ænǩlaız] —
analysis
[ǩ'nælısıs]);
— slight nasalization of vowels preceded or followed by nasal con-
sonants [n, m] (
no
,
my
,
can
,
come
).
57
II.
Vowel elision
(zero reduction) is the complete omission of the
unstressed vowel which is realized in connected speech under the influ-
ence of tempo, rhythm and style of speech. It usually occurs:
— in notional words within a sequence of unstressed syllables (
his
-
tory
['hıstǩrı] → ['hıstrı],
territory
['terıtǩrı] → ['terıtrı]);
— in notional words within unstressed syllables preceding the
stressed one (
correct
[kǩ'rekt] → [k'rekt],
suppose
[sǩ'pǩuz] →
[s'pǩuz]);
— in unstressed form words within a phrase (
Has he done it?
[hæz hi·
/
d
∧
n ıt] → [hǩz hı
/
d
∧
n ıt] → [ǩz ı
/
d
∧
n ıt] → [z ı
/
d
∧
n ıt]).
2.3. Complex vowel and consonant modifications
Contemporary modifications of sounds in English include the cases
of complex sound modifications with both vowels and consonants. They
are quite difficult to classify.
For example, here belong the pronunciation of the construction ‘
be
going to
’, the Infinitive after the verb ‘
want
’,
and the verbal form ‘
have
got to
’ in rapid speech:
I want to drink
.
[aı 'wɔnǩ 'drınk]
We’ve got to go there
.
[wıv 'gɔtǩ 'gǩu ðεǩ]
He’s going to come
.
[hız 'gɔnǩ 'k
∧
m]
§ 3. Notion of alternation and its types
As it has been stated, allophonic modifications of speech sounds are
quite regular. They are predicted by the context establishing changes of
allophones in each position. But there are variations of a different kind
in English called
sound alternations
which involve interchange be-
tween related phonemes as well. Two types of alternations are presented
in English on the synchronic and diachronic levels: historical and con-
temporary.
58
I.
Sound alternations that are traced back to the phonemic changes in
earlier periods of
language development and are known as
historical
. In
this case the alternating sounds are affected not by the present-day pho-
netic position or context but by certain diachronic processes which reveal
sound changes made in the course of language history. They are now-
adays reflected in English as alternations of phonemes used for differen-
tiating words, their derivatives and grammatical word-forms. Historical
alternations mark both vowels and consonants. They usually have certain
orthographic representation and may be supported by suffixation and
stress shifting.
1. Vowel alternations are exemplified by:
— distinctions of irregular verbal forms (
get — got — got
,
know —
knew — known
);
— distinctions of causal verbal forms (
to rise — to raise
);
— distinctions of singular and plural noun forms (
goose — geese
,
man — men
);
— distinctions of parts of speech in etymologically correlated words
(
long — length
).
2. Consonant alternations represent:
— distinctions of irregular verbal forms (
send — sent — sent
);
— distinctions of parts of speech in etymologically correlated words
(
defence — to defend
);
— reduction of consonant clusters in the initial (
write
,
know
,
gnat
),
medial (
listen
,
whistle
) or final positions (
lamb
).
3. Vowel and consonant alternations are presented by distinctions of
parts of speech in etymologically correlated words (
live — life
,
bath — to bathe
).
II.
Sound alternations on the synchronic level are known as
contex-
tual
or
contemporary
. They concern the phonemic structure of mor-
phemes under the influence of other morphemes joined to them. Such
phonemic changes do not have any spelling representation and characte-
rize sounds in weak positions, namely unstressed positions for vowels
and final or pre-consonantal position for consonants.
59
The study of contextual alternations differs from the study of sound
modifications. The latter is mainly connected with the articulatory and
acoustic aspects of sound phenomena whereas the first one deals with
phonology and touches upon the problem of phoneme identification of
alternated sounds in weak positions.
Let’s consider the following example. If we take the first syllabic
vowel of the words
ac
'
tivity
and
con
'
trast
and compare it with the first
syllabic vowel of the words '
active
and '
contrast
, we’ll clearly see the
difference in sound representation. It is the weak position of a vowel in
the first case and its strong position in the second one.
But the question is in defining the phonemic status of the vowel in its
weak position. There are two possible variants when in the words
ac
'
tivity
and
con
'
trast
the first syllabic vowel may be considered:
— either as the principle allophone of a neutral phoneme
[ǩ];
— or as subsidiary allophone of [æ] and [ɔ] in the words '
active
and
'
contrast
, correspondingly.
The difference is quite significant, because the sound [ǩ] may be iden-
tified either as an independent phoneme, or as a neutralized allophone of
some other phoneme. This problem still doesn’t get a single decision in
modern linguistics.
Yet in case of the English language the problem of contextual alterna-
tions and phoneme identification is said to be not so important. Numerous
phonetic simplifications of units larger than phonemes manifested in con-
nected speech don’t seem to affect the meaning of English sentences.
Omissions of speech sounds made in this or that word for the sake of the
economy of pronouncing efforts do not lead to excessive ambiguity.
For example, the auxiliary verbs
have
and
be
, in the 3
rd
person singu-
lar (
has, is
) reduced to a single sound [z] are properly recognized by the
listener because of their syntactic function in the context. So the sound
sequences [z 'nik 'k
∧
miŋ] or [z 'nik 'k
∧
m] are easily reconstructed as ‘
Is
Nick coming?
’
or ‘
Has Nick come?
’
The same is with the possessive -
’s
and the plural -
s
of nouns pro-
nounced as [z]. In the sound sequences [ðǩ 'bɔız 'skeıt] or [ðǩ 'bɔız 'pen] the
sound [z] is correspondingly recognized as the plural or possessive forms
of a noun: ‘
The boys skate
’ or ‘
The boy’s pen
’.