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50
9. Give an overview of the articulatory classification of vowels com-
pared to their phonological classification. Discuss the relevance of
the following points:
a) the stability of articulation;
b) the tongue position;
c) the vowel length;
d) the lip position;
e) the vowel tenseness and the character of the vowel end.
10. What criteria — articulatory or phonological — are more suitable in
the view of teaching pronunciation? Why?
11. State the essence of the problem of affricates in phonology. What
questions should be solved in connection with this problem?
12. What approaches regarding the problem of affricates exist in home
and foreign linguistics? Which one is the most suitable in your
opinion? Why?
13. State the essence of the problem of diphthongs in phonology. What
questions should be solved in connection with this problem?
14. Discuss the nature of English diphthongs and prove their monopho-
nemic character.
15. What can you say concerning the problem of diphthongoids?
16. Discuss the importance of the division of English vowels into
monophthongs, diphthongs and dipthongoids in connection with
language teaching.
17. Give an account of factors that can influence the quantity of the
vowel.
18. Can vowel length differentiate the meaning? Why does this question
constitute the subject of controversy among home and foreign lin-
guists?
19. What are the laws characterizing any language system according to
V.A. Vassilyev? How does this statement explain the connection
between the quantity and quality of vowels.
20. What can you say concerning the status of the phoneme [æ]?
51
Lecture 4
MODIFICATIONS AND
ALTERNATIONS OF SPEECH SOUNDS
IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
§ 1. Types of sound variations
in connected speech
In the process of speech communication language sounds undergo
different kinds of variations because of articulatory transitions in the pro-
duction of neighbouring sounds.
Every speech-sound pronounced in isolation has three stages of ar-
ticulation:
(1) the initial stage (the on-glide) when speech organs move to the posi-
tion of articulation;
(2) the medial stage (the retention/hold stage) when speech organs are
kept in the position of articulation;
(3) the final stage (the off-glide/release) when speech organs return to the
position of rest.
But in actual speech sounds are seldom pronounced by themselves,
they are used in combination with other sounds. There are four types of
sound junction in English:
(1) a combination of a consonant and a vowel (CV transition):
me
[mi:];
(2) a combination of a vowel and a consonant (VC transition):
in
[ın];
(3) a combination of two consonants (CC transition):
blow
[blǩu];
(4) a combination of two vowels (VV transition):
reality
[rı'ælıtı].
The adjacent speech sounds influence each other and modify the pro-
cess of sound production. The variations of the stages of articulation re-
sult in their merging or interpenetration.
52
Merging of stages usually takes place if two sounds of a different
nature are joined together: vowels and consonants, noise consonants and
sonorants, etc. In this case the end of the preceding sound penetrates into
the beginning of the following sound and they are articulated almost si-
multaneously (
law
[lo:]).
Interpenetration of stages usually takes place when consonants of a
similar or identical nature are joined together. In this case the end of the
first sound penetrates not only into the beginning but also into the middle
of the second sound (
act
[æ
kt
],
begged
[be
gd
]).
Sound variations are caused by different types of phonetic units: seg-
mental or suprasegmental.
Combinative changes are conditioned by segmental units and result
in the reciprocal influence of neighbouring sounds (
tune
[
tj
u:n],
in the
[i
n ð
ǩ]).
Positional changes are conditioned by suprasegmental units and re-
sult in the stylistic and intonational influence on sounds (word combina-
tions
slight pressure
,
hot muffins
may sound in colloquial speech like
['slaip
'pre∫ǩ], ['h
∧
p 'm
∧
fnz]).
The majority of sound variations in connected speech are combina-
tive, they may influence either phonemic or allophonic composition of a
word.
Phonemic variations are generally termed ‘
sound alternations
’.
They include changes between related phonemes and have great phono-
logical value.
Allophonic variations in the phonetic sequence are called ‘
sound mo-
difications
’. They are very important for practical language teaching.
§ 2. Modifications of sounds in connected speech
Sound modifications
are allophonic variations of speech sounds
caused by their position in a word. They are usually quite regular and can
be stated in the form of rules which predict the use of certain allophones
in each position. Sound modifications are observed both within words
and at word boundaries. There are different types of sound modification
in modern English, which characterize consonants, vowels, or both.
53
2.1. Modifications of consonants in connected speech
Consonants are characterized by the following types of sound modi-
fications: assimilation, accommodation, elision, and inserting.
I.
Assimilation
is the adaptive modification of a consonant by a
neighbouring consonant within a speech chain. There are different types
of assimilation.
1. According to the direction of sound modification assimilation is di-
vided into:
— progressive (
dogs
— voiced [z],
cats
— voiceless [s]);
— regressive (
width
— [d] becomes dental);
— reciprocal (
tree
— [t] becomes post-alveolar, [r] is partly de-
voiced).
2. According to the degree of sound modification assimilation can be:
— complete, when two sounds become completely alike or merge
into one another (
sandwich
['sænnwıʤ] → ['sænwıʤ] →
['sænıʤ]);
— incomplete, when the adjoining sounds are partially alike (
sweet
[w] is partially devoiced).
These types of assimilation may result in different modifications of
the place of articulation, the manner of articulation, and the force of ar-
ticulation.
1) Assimilation affecting the place of articulation includes the following
modifications of consonants:
— alveolar [t, d, n, l, s, z] become dental before interdental [ð, θ]
(
eighth
,
breadth
,
on the
,
all the
,
guess that
,
does that
);
— alveolar [t, d] become post-alveolar before post-alveolar [r] (
true
,
dream
);
— alveolar [s, z] become post-alveolar before apical forelingual [∫]
(
this shelf
,
does she
);
— alveolar [t, d] become fricative before palatal mediolingual [j]
(
graduate
,
congratulate
);
— nasal [m, n] become labio-dental before labio-dental [f, v] (
com
-
fort
,
infant
);
54
— nasal [n] becomes dental before interdental
[θ] (
seventh
);
— nasal [n] becomes velar before backlingual [k] (
think
);
— nasal [n] becomes palato-alveolar before palato-alveolar
[t∫, ʤ]
(
pinch
,
change
).
2) Assimilation affecting the manner of articulation includes the follow-
ing modifications of consonants:
— loss of plosion in the sequence of two stops [p, t, k, b, d, g] (
and
dad
,
that tape
,
fact
) or in the sequence of a stop and an affricate
(
a pointed chin
,
a sad joke
);
— nasal plosion in the combination of a plosive consonant and a
nasal sonorant (
sudden
,
happen
,
at night
,
submarine
,
let me
);
— lateral plosion in the sequence of an occlusive consonant and a
lateral sonorant (
settle
,
please
,
apple
);
— anticipating lip-rounded position in the combination of conso-
nants [t, d, k, g, s] and a sonorant [w] (
quite
,
swim
,
dweller
).
3) Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords includes the fol-
lowing modifications of consonants:
— progressive partial devoicing of the sonorous [m, n, l, w, r, j] be-
fore voiceless [s, p, t, k, f,
θ,
∫] (
small
,
slow
,
place
,
fly
,
sneer
,
try
,
throw
,
square
,
twilight
,
pure
,
few
,
tune
,
at last
,
at rest
);
— progressive voicing or devoicing of the contracted forms of the
auxiliary verbs
is
,
has
depending on the preceding phoneme
(
That’s right. Jack’s gone. John’s come
.);
— progressive voicing or devoicing of the possessive suffixes
-’s /
-s’
, the plural suffix
-(e)s
of nouns or the third person singular
ending
-(e)s
of verbs according to the phonetic context (
Jack’s
,
Tom’s
,
Mary’s
,
George’s; girls
,
boys
,
dishes
,
maps; reads
,
writes
,
watches
);
— progressive voicing or devoicing of the suffix
-ed
depending on
the preceding sound (
lived
,
played
,
worked
);
— regressive voicing or devoicing in compound words (
gooseberry
,
newspaper
);