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Diphthongs are complex vowel sounds with unstable articulation in-
cluding an articulatory glide from one position to another: [eı, aı, ɔı,
au, ǩu, ıǩ, εǩ, uǩ]. They consist of two elements: the nucleus with a
strong and distinct articulation which forms the starting point of a
vowel, and the glide which reveals the direction of the sound
change.
Diphthongoids are vowel sounds with a slight change in articulation
when the difference between the starting point and the end of the
sound is not so clear: [i:, u:].
II.
The variations in the
tongue position
also have an effect on the
quality of vowel sounds. They include horizontal and vertical movements
of the tongue.
1.
According to
horizontal movements
of the tongue, vowels are di-
vided into front, front-retracted, central, back, and back-advanced.
Front vowels are produced when the tongue is in the front part of the
mouth and its front is raised to the hard palate: [i:, e, æ], [eı] and the
nucleus of [εǩ].
Front-retracted vowels are pronounced when the tongue is in the
front part of the mouth but slightly retracted: [ı] and the nucleus of
[ıǩ, aı, au].
Central vowels are produced when the tongue is in the central part of
the mouth and its front is raised to the back part of the hard palate:
[ʤ, ǩ:, ǩ] and the nucleus of [ǩu].
B
ack vowels are pronounced when the tongue is in the back part of
the mouth and its back is raised to the soft palate [ɔ, o:, u:, a:] and the
nucleus of [ɔı].
Back-advanced vowels are produced when the tongue is in the back
part of the mouth but slightly advanced and its centre is raised to the
soft palate: [u] and the nucleus of [uǩ].
2.
According to
vertical movements
of the tongue, vowels are divided
into close, mid, and open.
Close (high) vowels are produced when the front or back of the tongue
is raised high to the palate: [i:, ı, u, u:].
41
Open (low) vowels are pronounced when the front or back of the
tongue is at the lowest position: [æ, a:, ɔ, o:].
Mid (half-open) vowels are produced when the raised part of the
tongue is between the close and open positions [e,
∧
, ǩ:, ǩ].
Each of these vertical tongue positions has two variants: broad and
narrow, which include a higher or lower position of articulation with-
in one of the levels. Thus a more precise classification includes the
following groups:
— close narrow vowels [i:, u:];
— close broad vowels [ı, u];
— mid narrow vowels [e, ǩ:];
— mid broad vowels [
∧
, ǩ];
— open narrow vowel [o:];
— open broad vowels [æ, a:, ɔ].
The nuclei of diphthongs are always pronounced within broad
variants.
III.
According to the
position of the lips
, vowels may be rounded or
unrounded.
Rounded vowels are produced when the lips are drawn together with
a round opening between them: [ɔ, o:, u, u:].
Unrounded vowels are pronounced when the lips are neutral or spread:
[i:, ı, e, æ, a:,
∧
, ǩ:, ǩ].
IV.
According to the
length
the classes of long and short vowels are
distinguished:
long vowels are capable of being continued during a longer period of
time [i:, a:, o:, ǩ:, u:];
short vowels — during a shorter period of time [i, e, ɔ, u, ǩ,
∧
].
The vowel sound [æ] stands apart from this category because it’s
relatively long.
V.
The
degree of tenseness
which distributes vowels into tense and
lax is closely connected with vowel length.
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Tense vowels are produced when the speech organs are tense, here
belong all English long vowels: [i:, a:, o:,
ǩ:, u:].
Lax vowels are produced with less tenseness of the speech organs,
here belong all English short vowels: [i, e,
ɔ, u,
ǩ,
∧
, æ].
VI.
English vowels are also classified according to the
character of
the end
into checked and free (unchecked). This criterion is connected
with the quality of vowel sounds under the influence of word stress.
Checked vowels are pronounced with maximum force of utterance
and have a strong end. They are abruptly interrupted by the following
consonant and therefore occur only in closed syllables. These are
English stressed vowels followed by a strong voiceless consonant
(
bet
[bet],
dock
[d
ɔk],
cart
[ka:t],
tape
[teıp],
teacher
[‘ti:t∫ǩ]).
Free vowels are pronounced with lessening force of utterance and
have a weak end. Here belong English vowels followed by a weak
voiced consonant or no consonant at all (
pull
[pul],
card
[ka:d],
tame
[teım],
try
[traı],
illusion
[ı’lu:jn]).
3.3. Phonological classification
The phonological description of vowels partially follows the articula-
tory one, yet it has significant distinctions. The same criteria are taken
into consideration (the stability of articulation, the tongue position, the lip
position, the vowel length, the vowel tenseness, the character of the vow-
el end), but they are analysed from the point of view of their functional
sufficiency. The criteria of articulatory classification provide the basis for
the establishment of distinctive oppositions, but not all of them get the
same treatment in home and foreign phonology. Moreover, some criteria
are not considered to be phonologically relevant.
I.
The
stability of articulation
is a disputable criterion. British and
American phoneticians suppose that the stability of speech organs in the
pronunciation of vowel sounds is quite relative.
Therefore in foreign linguistics the subdivision of vowels into
monophthongs and diphthongs is based on the number of elements con-
stituting a vowel phoneme. Thus simple vowels are defined as monoph-
thongs whereas complex vowels are defined as diphthongs.
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Russian scholars single out the criterion of the stability of articula-
tion, according to which vowels are subdivided into:
— monophthongs with stable tongue position;
— diphthongs with unstable articulation which implies gradual glide
of the tongue from one position to another;
— diphthongoids, with relatively unstable articulation which implies
a slight glide only.
The classification suggested by Russian linguists is more exact from
the articulatory point of view and thus it is more suitable for teaching
purposes. Yet the phonemic status of diphthongs and diphthongoids
causes much argument.
II.
The
position of the tongue
in the mouth cavity is the criterion
acknowledged as phonologically relevant by all linguists. Still the clas-
sifications suggested by Russian and foreign scientists have considerable
meaningful differences.
According to the horizontal movements of the tongue our phoneti-
cians distinguish five classes of vowels: front, front-retracted, central,
back, back-advanced. Foreign phoneticians distinguish only three classes:
front, central and back.
The classification of English vowels according to the vertical move-
ments of the tongue is also variable. British scholars distinguish three
classes of vowels: high, mid and low. Russian phoneticians make this
classification more detailed and distinguish two subclasses in each class,
all in all constituting six classes: broad and narrow variations of close,
mid and open vertical positions.
The controversy in the treatment of this criterion naturally leads to
different views on the next criterion — the length of vowels.
III.
The distribution of vowels according to their
length
into long and
short from the articulatory point of view is stated by all linguists. The
antagonism of foreign and home linguists lies in the field of phonology.
British and American phoneticians consider vowel length to be an
essential phonemic feature whereas Russian scientists don’t treat it as
phonologically relevant. They underline that physical duration of a vow-
el in connected speech depends on many factors and doesn’t always serve
as the only distinctive feature.
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The explanation of such a considerable difference in the approaches
to the second and third criteria is quite simple. In fact, the criteria of
tongue position and vowel length are interconnected from the point of
view of their functional significance. Foreign linguists do not single out
the classes of front-retracted and back-advanced vowels when analyzing
the horizontal movements of the tongue. They also do not distribute vo-
wels into broad and narrow variants when dealing with the vertical move-
ments of the tongue. So the number of vowel classes distinguished on the
basis of the tongue position is fairly smaller which results in different
views on the criterion of vowel length.
This can be clearly illustrated by the example of vowels [i:, ı, u:, u].
According to the approach of Russian linguists, they belong to the
same vowel classes, but differ in subclases:
[i:] front, close narrow vowel — [ı] front-retracted, close broad
vowel;
[u:] back, close narrow vowel — [u] back-advanced, close broad
vowel.
Therefore the distinction of minimal pairs like
Pete
[pi:t]
— pit
[pıt],
pool
[pu:l] —
pull
[pul] is made with the help of functional features based
on different positions of the tongue.
Thus the length of vowels is not
considered to be relevant.
In foreign linguistics the classification of vowels according to the
tongue position is not so precise. Therefore both [i:] and [ı] are classed as
front vowels, both [u:] and [u] — as back ones. In this case word-meaning
in oppositions like
beat
[bi:t] —
bit
[bıt]
, seat
[si:t] —
sit
[sıt] can be dif-
ferentiated only with the help of vowel length which should be taken into
consideration as a phonologically relevant factor.
IV.
The traditional classification of vowels according to the
lip
position
into spread, neutral and rounded, may be reduced to two posi-
tions: rounded and unrounded.
Still lip rounding is not phonologically relevant because it takes place
only due to physiological reasons. From the phonological point of view
lip rounding is caused by different positions of the tongue. Any back
vowel is pronounced with lip rounding and the degree of rounding de-
pends on the height of the raised part of the tongue.