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35
— bilabial vs. forelingual
pan — tan
[pæn] — [tæn];
— bilabial vs. backlingual
pick — kick
[pık] — [kık];
— forelingual vs. mediolingual
less — yes
[les] — [jes];
— forelingual vs. backlingual
day — gay
[deı] — [geı];
— forelingual vs. glottal
sigh — high
[saı] — [haı];
— labio-dental vs. forelingual
feet — seat
[fi:t] — [si:t], etc.
IV.
The
voice characteristics
in phonological analysis is connected
with the force and energy of articulation rather than with the work of the
vocal cords.
According to it consonants are divided into strong (fortis, voiceless) and
weak (lenis, voiced). The difference is exemplified in distinctive opposi-
tional pairs:
cap — cab, not — nod, pick — pig, cap — gap, pit — bit
.
V.
The
position of the soft palate
is not phonologically relevant,
because the presence or absence of nasalization is not used for meaning
differentiation in English. There are no distinctive pairs of consonants
which differ in the position of the soft palate so in phonology this feature
is considered as an indispensable concomitant one.
2.4. Problem of affricates
T
he problem of affricates arises in phonology, when phoneticians
define the phonological status and number of these consonants in the
English language.
Russian specialists state there are two affricate sounds in English:
[t∫,
ʤ]. Foreign linguists enlarge the scale and point out six more affricates:
[ts, dz, tr, dr,
tθ, dð]. So there are eight reputed affricate sounds in Eng-
lish:
[t∫, ʤ, ts, dz, tr, dr,
tθ, dð].
In order to overcome such a controversy, it’s necessary to consider
this problem thoroughly.
We should note here that only voiceless affricates are the object of
phonological investigation in this case. The articulation of voiced coun-
terparts is said to follow the same principles as voiceless ones.
The
first question
that needs an answer is: whether these sounds are
monophonemic bicentral entities or biphonemic combinations of two dif-
ferent elements?
36
According to the rules of articulatory indivisibility by N.S. Trubetz-
koy, a sound complex is considered monophonemic if it possesses syl-
labic and articulatory indivisibility, and its duration does not exceed the
normal one.
Thus the analysis of the reputed affricate sounds
[t∫, ʤ, ts, dz, tr, dr,
tθ, dð] from the point of view of their syllabic indivisibility shows
that there are some word-groups in which the sounds [t∫, ts, tr, tθ] may
belong to one syllable:
butcher
[but∫-ǩ],
mattress
[mætr-is],
curtsey
[kǩ:-tsı],
eighth
[eıtθ].
Further analysis shows that the given sound complexes are homoge-
neous and produced by one articulatory effort.
The length of these sounds cannot be relied on, as it depends on pho-
netic context. For example, the length of English [t∫] in
match
is much
longer than in
chair
,
but this does not prove that in the first word [t∫]
is biphonemic.
So the analysis on the basis of articulatory and acoustic criteria shows
that potentially the sounds [t∫, ts, tr, tθ] and their voiced counterparts [ʤ,
dz, dr, dð] can be considered monophonemic and therefore can be treated
as affricates.
Here
the second question
arises: if these sounds are monophonemic,
how many phonemes of the same kind exist in English?
According to the morphological criterion a phoneme is morphologi-
cally indivisible, hence a sound complex is considered to be monophone-
mic if a morpheme boundary cannot pass within it.
In this case [t∫, ʤ] can undoubtedly get a monophonemic status, as
these phoneme sounds prove to be indispensable. For example, with-
out [t] or [∫] the word
chair
[t∫εǩ] correspondingly becomes
share
[∫εǩ] or
tear
[tεǩ]; the word
match
[mæt∫] changes into
mash
[mæ∫] or
mat
[mæt].
The sound complexes [ts, dz, tθ, dð] cannot be included in the system
of English phonemes, because their last elements are separate mor-
phemes [s, z, θ, ð] which are easily singled out by native speakers in
any kind of phonetic context.
The case with [tr, dr] complexes is more difficult, because in some
cases they turn to be inseparable when the elimination of one element
37
results in the change of meaning:
tray
[treı] —
ray
[reı]. Still they are
normally regarded as sound sequences and are not included in the
system of English phonemes.
Consequently, it’s necessary to take into consideration both ap-
proaches and regard the problem of affricates successively, first resting
on the articulatory and acoustic characteristics and then on the morpho-
logical and functional ones.
Thus Russian phoneticians define [t∫, ʤ] as monophonemic units that are
included in the system of English phonemes and possess the articulatory
characteristics of occlusive-constrictive, bicentral, (fore)lingual, palato-alve-
olar consonants with the opposition of voiceless fortis [t∫] vs. voiced lenis
[ʤ] (
to catch — to cadge
;
riches — ridges
;
lunch — lunge
;
to
beseech
—
to
besiege
). In home phonology [tr, dr, ts, dz, tθ, dð] are considered as bipho-
nemic complexes which cannot enter the consonant sub-system in spite of
their articulatory and acoustic indivisibility in some contexts.
§ 3. Articulatory and phonological views
on the classification of English vowels
3.1. General characteristics of English vowels
Vowels are speech sounds made with the air stream that meets no
obstruction in the mouth, pharyngeal or nasal cavities. There is no noise
component characteristic in the production of vowel sounds.
A minimum vowel system of any language is likely to take the form
of a triangle with the sounds [i, u, a] at the tops. They form boundaries of
the vowel system as acoustically stable and articulatory different from
each other sounds.
[i] [u]
[a]
38
Sounds [e, o] may be added to them to mark the medium degree of
unlikeness in the acoustic and articulatory characteristics. Thus we get
the most common vowel system with 5 vowels.
[i]
[u]
[e]
[o]
[a]
T
he British linguist D. Jones tried to establish a broader classification
of vowels for all languages. He devised the system of eight Cardinal
Vowels on the physiological basis with the help of X-ray photography of
the tongue positions. This system is recognized by most foreign linguists
and serves the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
IPA symbols for the cardinal vowels are: 1 [i], 2 [e], 3
[ε], 4 [a], 5 [α],
6 [ɔ], 7 [o], 8 [u]. The triangle form in this case is changed into a trape-
zium.
1
8
2
7
3
6
4
5
The articulatory changes in this case should be described as follows: the
front part of the tongue raised as close as possible to the palate forms point of
articulation No.1, the gradual lowering of the tongue to the back lowest posi-
tion gives point No.5, the lowest front position of the tongue gives point
No.4, the upper back limit for the tongue position gives point No.8. The
tongue positions between these points form points for No. 2, 3, 6, 7.
39
The system of cardinal vowels is an international standard, but in
spite of great theoretical significance its practical application is limited.
In language teaching this system can be learned only by oral instructions
from a teacher who knows how to pronounce the vowels.
The model pronunciation can be illustrated by the following examples:
1 [i] — German
Biene
, Russian
пили
;
2 [e] — Russian
тесть
;
3 [ε] — Russian
эта
;
4 [a] — French
la
;
5 [α] — English
hot
;
6 [ɔ] — German
Sonne
;
7 [o] — French
Rose
;
8 [u] — German
gut
.
The system of cardinal vowels gets necessary transformations when
applied to a particular language.
The standard of English pronunciation, called Received Pronuncia-
tion or BBC English, contains 20 vowel phonemes [ı, e, æ, a:, ɔ, o:, u, ʤ,
ǩ:, ǩ, i:, u:, eı, aı, ɔı, au, ǩu, ıǩ, εǩ, uǩ].
They may be exemplified by the following words: [ı]
ink
, [e]
net
, [æ]
act
, [a:]
arc
, [ɔ]
on
, [o:]
all
, [u]
put
, [
∧
]
utter
, [ǩ:]
earn
, [ǩ]
about
, [i:]
neat
, [u:]
pool
, [eı]
eight
, [aı]
my
, [au]
how
, [ɔı]
oil
, [ıǩ]
ear
, [εǩ]
air
, [uǩ]
doer
, [ǩu]
no
.
3.2. Articulatory classification
Articulatory classification of English vowels describes distinctive
changes in the stability of articulation, the tongue position, the lip posi-
tion, the vowel length, the vowel tenseness and the character of the vow-
el end.
I.
According to the
stability of articulation
English vowels are di-
vided into monophthongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids.
Monophthongs are pure vowel sounds with stable unchanging articu-
lation: [ı, e, æ, a:, ɔ, o:, u,
∧
, ǩ:, ǩ].