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The problem of phoneme identification is far more significant for the
Russian language because of the widely spread voiced — voiceless pho-
nemic consonant assimilation and vowel reduction.
§ 4. Problem of phoneme identification.
Main phonological schools
There are different views on the problem of the phonemic status of sounds
in neutral positions and the identification of phonemes they belong to.
I.
The representatives of
Moscow phonological school
(R.I. Avane-
sov, P.S. Kuznetsov, A.A. Reformatsky, and others) support the theory of
morphological neutralization of phonemes. They state that a phoneme
may lose one or more of its distinctive features in a weak position within
a morpheme. Thus phonemic alternations within one and the same unit
are connected with morphology. According to this view:
— two different phonemes in different allomorphs of the same mor-
pheme may be represented on the synchronic level by one and
the same sound which is their common variant (
вода
—
вóды
,
мо-
роз
—
морóзы
) and, consequently,
— one and the same sound may belong to one phoneme in one word
and to another phoneme in another word (
кот — код
).
In order to decide to which phoneme the sounds in a phonologically
weak position belong, it is necessary to find another allomorph of the same
morpheme, in which the phoneme occurs in its strong position and retains
all the distinctive features. The strong position of a Russian consonant is
before a vowel in the same word, the strong position of a vowel is that
under stress. So the given examples may get the following treatment:
— in ‘
вода — вóды
’ [a] and [o] are allophones of the same phoneme
[o], in ‘
мороз — морóзы
’
[с] and [з] are allophones of the same
phoneme [з];
— in ‘
кот
—
код
’ the identification of the allophone depends on the
identification of the strong position of allomorphs ‘
коты — коды
’.
II.
The representatives of
Leningrad (St. Petersburg) phonological
school
(L.V. Shcherba, L.R. Zinder, M.I. Matusevich, and others) sup-
61
port another view and advocate the autonomy of the phoneme and its
independence from the morpheme. They state that allomorphs of a single
morpheme may differ from each other on the synchronic level not only in
their allophonic, but also in their phonemic composition. The content of
the morpheme is constant. Speech sounds in phonologically neutral posi-
tions belong to that phoneme with whose principal variant they com-
pletely or nearly coincide. Thus:
— in ‘
вода
’ the first vowel sound should be assigned to phoneme [a];
— in ‘
кот — код
’ the sound in question belongs to phoneme [т].
III.
According to the representatives of
Prague phonological school
(N.S. Trubetzkoy, R. Jacobson, and others), there are types of units higher
and broader than phonemes: the so-called ‘archiphonemes’. An archipho-
neme represents a combination of distinctive features common to two
different phonemes excluding their specific features. So in ‘
кот — код
’
the sound in question is neither [т] nor [д] but an abstract unit combining
their voiceless-fortis and voiced-lenis characteristics and making them
similar in neutral positions.
It should be mentioned that none of these conceptions is recognized
as ideal in modern linguistics.
Seminar 4
1. What are the main types of sound junction in English?
2. Name and characterize the stages of articulation when speech sounds
are pronounced in isolation.
3. Explain the notions of interpenetration and merging of stages of
articulation.
4. Characterize the combinative and positional changes of articulation.
What types of units are they caused by? Give examples.
5. Comment on the term ‘sound modifications’. What types of varia-
tions do they concern? What units do they characterize?
6. Give an overview of consonant modifications in modern English.
Discuss the following variations and give your own examples to il-
lustrate each of them:
62
a) assimilation;
b) accommodation;
c) elision;
d) insertion.
7. Speak about vowel modifications in modern English. Discuss the
following variations and give your own examples to illustrate each
of them:
a) reduction;
b) elision.
8. What do you know about complex vowel and consonant modifica-
tions?
9. Comment on the term ‘sound alternations’. What types of variations
do they concern? What units do they characterize?
10. What types of sound alternations are presented in the English lan-
guage?
11. Discuss the peculiarities of historical alternations. Illustrate your
words with examples.
12. What do contextual alternations concern?
13. Is there any difference between the study of contextual alternations
from that of sound modifications? Prove your opinion.
14. How are the problems of contextual alternations and phoneme iden-
tification connected? Is it important in case of the English lan-
guage?
15. Why is the problem of phoneme identification significant for the
Russian language? Does it get a single interpretation in linguistics?
16. Survey the conceptions of phonemic neutralization put forward by
scholars of different linguistic trends. Comment on the theories pre-
sented by:
a) Moscow phonological school;
b) St. Petersburg phonological school;
c) Prague phonological school.
63
Lecture 5
SYLLABIC STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS
§ 1. Theories on syllable formation and division
Speech continuum can be broken into
syllables
— minimal pro-
nounceable units presenting a cluster or group of sounds. Syllables form
language units of greater magnitude: morphemes, words and phrases,
each of them characterized by a certain syllabic structure. Thus any meaning-
ful language unit may be considered from the point of view of two as-
pects: syllable formation and syllable division, which form a dialectal
unity.
The syllable is a rather complicated phenomenon and, like a pho-
neme, it can be studied on four levels: articulatory, acoustic, auditory and
functional. Its complex character gave rise to many theories in foreign
and home linguistics.
The articulatory study of the syllable was presented in the
expiratory
theory
(chest pulse theory, pressure theory) based by R.H. Stetson. Ac-
cording to it, speech is a pulsating expiratory process and every syllable
corresponds to a single expiration. So the number of syllables in an utte-
rance should be determined by the number of expirations made in its
production. But the validity of the theory is fairly doubtful. It was strongly
criticized by Russian and foreign linguists, because the number of sylla-
bles in a word and even the number of words in a phrase can be pro-
nounced with a single expiration.
The acoustic level of the syllable is investigated in the
sonority the-
ory
put forward by O. Jespersen. It is based on the assumption that each
sound is characterized by a certain degree of sonority which determines
its perceptibility. Thus it’s possible to establish a ranking of speech
sounds from the least sonorous to the most sonorous ones:
64
open vowels
the most sonorous
close vowels
sonorants
voiced fricatives
voiced plosives
voiceless fricatives
voiceless plosives
the least sonorous
According to it any sound sequence presents a wave of sonority,
which is formed with the most sonorous sound as the center of the syl-
lable and the least sonorous sounds as marginal segments, like in the
word
plant
[pla:nt].
p l a: n t
The most serious drawback of this theory is that many English syl-
lables contradict it. For example, in this case a sound sequence like
stops
[stops] should have three syllables instead of the actual one.
Further experimental work resulted in a lot of other theories, but the
question of the articulatory and acoustic mechanism of syllable formation
is still open in phonetics. It might be fair to suppose that this mechanism
is similar in all languages and can be regarded as a phonetic and physio-
logical universal.
The
theory of muscular tension
by L.V. Shcherba has prevailed for
a long time in Russian linguistics. It states that the syllabic peak in most
languages is formed with the help of a vowel or sometimes a sonorant,
and the phonemes preceding or following the peak are marginal. The syl-
lable is defined as an arc of muscular tension in which the tension of ar-
ticulation increases within the range of prevocalic consonants and then
decreases within the range of postvocalic consonants. This theory has
been further modified by V.A. Vassilyev, who suggested that the physical
parameters of pitch, intensity and length also vary within the range of the
syllable. So on the speech production level the syllable can be treated as