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65
an arc of articulatory effort which combines the changes in the muscular
tension of articulation and the acoustic data.
p l a:
n t
Still all the theories mentioned above analyze the syllable either on
production or perception levels. An outstanding Russian linguist and psy-
chologist N.I. Zhinkin has made an attempt to combine these levels of
analysis in the so-called
loudness theory
. His experiments showed that
the loudness of sounds depends on the variations of the pharyngeal pas-
sage modified by the narrowing of its walls. Thus the increase of muscu-
lar tension results in the increase of actual loudness of a sound. So on the
perception level the syllable is the arc
оf loudness which correlates with
the arc of articulatory effort on the production
level, since variations in
loudness are due to the work of all speech mechanisms.
Speaking about the definition of the syllable, it is perfectly obvious
that no phonetician has so far succeeded in it. The attempts to define the
concept of the syllable resulted in the existence of different approaches.
Some linguists treat the syllable as a purely articulatory unit universal
for all languages, which lacks any functional value, because its boundar-
ies do not always coincide with those of morphemes.
Still the majority of linguists regard the syllable as the smallest pro-
nounceable unit with a certain linguistic function which refers to the
structure of a particular language. In this case the
definition of the syl-
lable
tends to single out the following features:
— a syllable is a chain of phonemes of varying length;
— a syllable is constructed on the basis of the contrast of its con-
stituents, usually of vowel-consonant (VC) type;
— the nucleus of a syllable is a vowel, but there are languages in
which this function is performed by a consonant;
— the presence of
consonants in a syllable is optional;
— the distribution of phonemes in the syllable follows the rules of a
particular language.
l
l l
l l
66
Thus the definition of the syllable presents a sum of features charac-
teristic of this suprasegmental unit.
§ 2. Syllable formation in English
The syllabic structure of all languages can be characterized from the
point of view of two aspects: syllable formation and syllable division
which are inseparable from each other. Let us begin with the study of the
first aspect.
Syllable formation
in English is generally based on the phonological
opposition ‘vowel vs. consonant’. Vowels are usually syllabic while con-
sonants are not, with the exceptions of [l, m, n]. The English language
possesses a great variety of syllables types.
V.A. Vassilyev classifies syllable formation in English on the basis
of the type of phoneme the syllable ends in. He states the existence of two
types of syllables:
(1) open syllables ending in a vowel phoneme (
I
[aı],
me
[mi:],
spy
[spaı],
spray
[spreı]);
(2) closed syllables ending in a consonant phoneme (
it
[ıt],
and
[ænd],
ants
[ænts]).
The linguist underlines that these are phonetic syllables which distin-
guish the actual pronunciation of a word. They shouldn’t be confused
with orphthographic syllables into which words are divided in writing
and which are used in the system of reading rules.
M.A. Sokolova, V.D. Arakin and other linguists suggest another ap-
proach. They define four types of syllables in English on the basis of the
number and arrangement of consonants with a vowel. These are:
(1) fully open syllables, which consist of a vowel sound only (V type):
are
[a:],
or
[o:],
I
[aı];
(2) fully closed syllables, in which a vowel is between consonants (C)
CVC(C) type):
cat
[kæt],
jump
[ʤ
∧
mp],
plan
[plæn];
(3) syllables covered at the beginning, in which a consonant or a se-
quence of consonants precede a vowel (CC)CV type):
so
[sǩu],
spy
[spaı],
screw
[skru:];
67
(4) syllables covered at the end, in which a consonant or a sequence of con-
sonants follow a vowel (VC(CC) type):
on
[
ɔ
n],
old
[ǩuld], acts [ækts].
Certain peculiarities of the system of English phonemes admit the
existence of types of syllables which consist of consonants only, with the
nucleous [l, n, m]. These are:
(1) syllables of CC type (
table
[teı
bl
],
taken
[teı
kn
],
rhythm
[rı
ðm
]);
(2) syllables of CCC type (
decent
[di:
snt
],
seldom
[se
ldm
]);
(3) syllables of CCCC type (
students
[stju:
dnts
];
(4) syllables of CCCCC type (
functional
[f
∧
ŋk∫nl
]).
The distribution of consonant sounds in the structure of syllables is
fixed by certain rules and restrictions:
— sonorants [w, j] are always syllable initial (
wheel
[wi:l],
yes
[jes]);
— sonorants [n, l, m] are syllabic only in unstressed final positions
if preceded by a noise consonant (
bottle
[b
ɔ
tl],
bottom
[b
ɔ
tm],
button
[b
∧
tn]);
— [s] is always initial in the syllables of CCCV type (
straw
[stro:]);
— [s/z] are usually included in the syllables of VC(CC) type as mor-
phological indexes of the plural form of nouns or 3rd person sin-
gular form of verbs (
casks
[ka:sks],
asks
[a:sks]);
— [r] becomes syllabic in some accents (
perhaps
[præps]);
A single generalized formula of English syllables can be summarized
as follows: (C)V/C(C). The brackets indicate the optional presence of con-
sonants. This formula shows that the syllabic structure of the English lan-
guage consists of a nucleus which may be accompanied with consonants.
The nucleus is the peak of the syllable which is presented by a vowel
or a sonorous consonant. Consonant(s) preceding the nucleus make up
the syllable onset. Consonant(s) following the nucleus make up the syl-
lable coda. The combination of the nucleus and the coda makes up the
rhyming property of a syllable.
The structure of the English syllable admits from 1 to 3 pre-vocalic
consonants (
splay
[
spl
eı]) and from 1 to 5 post-vocalic consonants (
min
-
strels
['mı
nstrlz
]).
68
The number of syllables in English words can vary from 1 to 8 (
day
[deı],
baby
['beıbı],
family
['fæmılı],
generation
[
'
ʤenǩ'reı∫n],
liberality
[
'
lıbǩ'rælıtı],
responsibility
[rıs
'
ponsǩ'bılıtı],
irresponsibility
[ırıs
'
ponsǩ'bılıtı],
incomprehensibility
[ın'komprı
'
hensǩ'bılıtı].
The basis of syllable formation in the English language is the open
type of syllable in case of long or diphthongized vowels, and the closed
type of syllable in case of short vowels. This statement brings us to the
point of syllable division.
§ 3. Syllable division in English
Syllable division
is another aspect of the syllabic structure of any
language. It helps to establish the structure of meaningful language units
(morphemes and words) and thus determines the syllabic characteristics
of the language. The rules of syllable division are studied by a special
branch of phonetics —
phonotactics
. It determines the patterns accor-
ding to which phonemes are grouped into syllables.
As it was mentioned above, both open and closed syllables form mor-
phemes and words in English, but due to the specific structure of the
language it is difficult in some cases to define the syllable boundary. It is
predetermined by word stress in conjunction with the free or checked
character of vowels.
There are the following
rules for syllable division
in the English
language.
I.
Syllable division concerning stressed long monophthongs, diph-
thongs and diphthongoids doesn’t present any difficulty.
These are free vowels which occur in a phonetically open syllable and
the point of syllable division is right after them:
carpet
['ka:-pıt],
greeting
['gri:-tıŋ],
taming
['teı-mıŋ].
II.
Syllable division in case of short vowels manifests their checked
character under stress.
A short stressed vowel separated from the next vowel by a consonant
or a consonant cluster always occurs in a closed syllable in order to retain
its checked character:
city
['sıtı],
ekstra
['ekstrǩ].
69
The difficulty is to find the point of syllable division. It greatly de-
pends on the number of consonant phonemes following the vowel.
1) When a short stressed vowel is followed by one consonant, there
are two possibilities to determine the point of syllable division. It
may be after or inside the intervocalic consonant:
city
['sıt-ı] or
['sıŧı]. The results of instrumental analysis show that the point of
syllable division in such words is inside the intervocalic conso-
nant. It can be marked in transcription by putting a syllable boun-
dary after the consonant serving as the point of syllable division
and adding an apostrophe sign to the next consonant in order to
fill the gap in notation: ['sıt-’ı].
2) When a short stressed vowel is followed not by a single conso-
nant, but by a consonant cluster, the rule for syllable division is
different. In words like
extra
there may be several possibilities to
determine syllable boundaries: ['ek-strǩ], ['eks-trǩ], or ['ekst-rǩ].
The division ['ek-strǩ] seems to be more natural. Instrumental
analysis proves that a new pronunciation effort begins after the
first consonant. Therefore such syllable division is fixed in pro-
nunciation dictionaries.
It should be kept in mind that the pronunciation of the stressed short
vowel in this case is checked, the transition from a vowel to a consonant is
very close and there is no weakening of an articulatory effort towards the
end of the syllable. Thus the syllable is closed. This rule for syllable divi-
sion in the English language is very important for language teaching. Stu-
dents should never confuse the Russian open stressed syllable in words like
си-то
with the English closed stressed syllable in words like
city
['sıŧı].
III.
Syllable division concerning English pre-tonic unstressed vowels
also depends on the number of consonants sepating them from the next
stressed vowel, no matter whether it is a monophthong, a diphthong or a
diphthongoid.
1) When an unstressed short vowel is separated from a succeeding
stressed one by a single consonant, the syllable it belongs to is
always open (
before
[bı-'fo:],
idea
[aı-'dıǩ]).
2) The case when vowels are separated by a cluster of two consonants
is more difficult. The point of syllable division is determined with