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the help of phoneme distribution. If a consonant cluster is possible
in the initial position, the syllable boundary lies before the cluster
and the syllable is open; if it does not, the point of syllable division
is between the consonants and the syllable is closed.
For example, the words
agree, abrupt
should be divided into syllables
in the following way:
[ǩ-'grı], [ǩ-'br
∧
pt], because clusters [gr], [br] are
possible at the beginning of English words (
great, cry, break
). The syl-
lable boundary of the word
admit
is between [d] and [m]: [ǩd-'mıt] as the
sound sequence [dm] doesn’t occur at the beginning of English words.
IV.
Syllable division of post tonic vowels (monophthongs, diphthongs
and diphthongoids) separated from the following vowel by a consonant is
a matter of no practical importance for language learners. Still most lin-
guists state that it should be before the consonant:
history
['hıs-tǩ-rı].
§ 4. Functional characteristics of the syllable
The syllable is a phonological unit that performs the following close-
ly connected functions: constitutive, distinctive and identificatory.
1. The constitutive function of the syllable lies in its ability to be a word
or a part of it. It this respect the syllable exercises the connection of
smaller and greater language units.
On the one hand, it represents the correlation of the distinctive
and acoustic features of
phonemes. On the other hand, it realizes the
prosodic characteristics of speech within the stress pattern of words,
the rhythmic and intonation structures of utterances. Thus the syllable
sums up specific minimal features of both segmental and supraseg-
mental levels.
2. The distinctive function of the syllable lies in its ability to differenti-
ate words and word-forms taken separately or in combinations.
This statement can be illustrated with the following distinctive
oppositions:
nitrate
[naı-'treıt]
vs.
night-rate
[naıt-'reıt];
lightening
['laı-tn-ıŋ] vs.
lightning
['laıt-nıŋ]. In these minimal pairs syllable di-
vision changes the allophonic contents of words and thus helps to
distinguish between them.
71
The similar distinction is found within language units of greater
magnitude:
an aim
[ǩn 'eım] vs.
a name
[ǩ 'neım];
we loan
[wı 'lǩun]
vs.
we’ll own
[wıl 'ǩun]. These oppositional pairs present differentia-
tion of syllables concerning word combinations.
Sometimes syllable division may even be the basic ground for
sentence differentiation:
I saw her
rise
[aı 'so: hǩ 'raız] vs.
I saw her
eyes
[aı 'so: hǩr 'aız];
I saw
the meat
[aı 'so: ðǩ 'mi:t] vs.
I saw them
eat
[aı 'so: ðǩm 'i:t].
3. The identificatory function of the syllable is conditioned by the pro-
nunciation of the speaker.
The listener’s ability to perceive and identify the exact meaning of a
word or a combination of words depends on the speaker’s ability to es-
tablish the correct syllabic boundary:
pea stalks
['pi: 'sto:ks] vs.
peace
talks
['pi:s 'to:ks];
my train
[maı 'treın] vs.
might rain
[maıt 'reın].
The realization of the distinctive and identificatory functions of
the syllable is closely connected with the notion of
juncture
, kept by
the speaker and taken in by the listener.
Close juncture (conjuncture) occurs between the sounds of the
same syllable. Open juncture (disjuncture) occurs between the sounds
of two different syllables.
Some linguists state that word juncture should be marked in a pho-
netic transcription with [+]. In this case the differentiation between the
oppositional pairs will look as follows:
ice cream
[aıs + kri:m] vs.
I scream
[aı + skri:m].
Summarizing, it’s necessary to underline that the syllable reveals its
functional value only occasionally. This means that all the functions of the
syllable can be realized only with the help of other phonological units.
§ 5. Graphic representation of syllables
in English
Any syllable as a part of a word has double representation. Its pho-
netic image is shown in transcription (phonemic or allophonic) and its
written notation is shown in spelling (orthography). But the problem is
72
that parts of phonetic and orthographic syllables do not always coincide
(
let-ter
['let-’ǩ],
sin-ging
['sıŋ-’ıŋ).
Syllable division in writing may follow the rules which have already
been stated above. Then the division of the syllabic structure in orthogra-
phy is made according to phonological principles (
fa-mi-ly, re-gu-lar
).
Still such a division is not always possible. For example, in the words
body
['bɔd-’ı],
money
['m
∧
n-’ı], the consonant letter representing the
point of syllable division should be added to the next vowel letter in order
to escape notation gaps:
bo
-
dy
,
mo
-
ney
.
Syllable division in writing may be also based on the morphological
principle. In this case prefixal and suffixal morphemes are divided from
the root one (
ir
-
regul
-
ar
), no matter whether they belong to the same
phonetic syllable or not.
Graphic representation of syllables in orthography is relevant for language
learning only when it is necessary to carry some of the letters over to the next
line. This process is usually called
syllable separation
. Special attention is
necessary in order to exercise it correctly. There are the following rules:
— a word can be separated only if it consists of more than 5 letters
and contains more than one syllable;
— the number of separated letters should be more than one;
— the parts of a word subjected to separation are derivational morhemes
used in word-building, but not inflexional ones used in word-chan-
ging (
be-come
,
friend-ship
,
commit-ment
,
sports-man
,
volley-ball
);
— the suffix -ing can be separated with the preceding consonant if
there is a consonant cluster before it:
hand-ling
;
— suffixes consisting of two syllables can’t be broken and should be
sepapated as a whole:
vulner-able
;
— suffixes consisting of two letters can’t be separated with the exep-
tion of -ly:
surprised
,
teacher
,
graphic
, but:
correct-ly
.
Seminar 5
1. What is a syllable? How would you define it in a general sense?
2. Interpret different theories that study the syllable. Consider the fol-
lowing:
73
a) the expiratory theory;
b) the sonority theory;
c) the theory of muscular tension;
d) the loudness theory.
3. Give the definition of the syllable as a sum of features, characteristic
of this suprasegmental unit.
4. What are the two aspects that determine the problem of the study of
syllable?
5. What is syllable formation in the English language based on?
6. Give an overview of different classifications of syllables types. Il-
lustrate what you are going to say.
7. Discuss the peculiarities of consonant distribution in the structure of
English syllables. Give your own examples.
8. Give a generalized formula of an English syllable. What parts does
it consist of?
9. What type of syllable makes up the basis of syllable formation in
English?
10. What is the essence of syllable division in the English language?
11. List and explain the basic rules for syllable division in the English
language.
12. Why is it sometimes difficult to define syllable boundary within
English words?
13. What functions does a syllable perform?
14. Characterize the syllabic functions one by one. Suggest evidence for
each of them with the help of examples.
15. Explain the notion of juncture. How is it connected with the realiza-
tion of syllabic functions?
16. What is the difference between phonetic and orthographic represen-
tations of syllables?
17. What methods of syllable division in writing do you know?
18. List the rules for syllable separation. Give your own examples.
74
Lecture 6
W
ORD STRESS IN ENGLISH
§ 1. Nature of word stress
The syllabic structure of words is closely connected with their ac-
centual structure. The sequence of syllables in a word is not pronounced
identically, some syllable(s) are uttered with greater prominence. These
are known as
stressed
or
accented syllables
.
Stress in isolated words is termed ‘word stress’; stress in connected
speech is termed ‘sentence stress’. Word stress in English is indicated by
placing a special stress mark before a stressed syllable /'/. Sentence stress
also needs special marking.
The term ‘word stress’ doesn’t get a single definition in linguistics. It
is defined as:
— an increase of expiratory energy and articulatory activity (B.A. Bo-
goroditsky);
— the greater degree of force exhalation and loudness (D. Jones);
— the changes in the degree of force of breath (H. Sweet); etc.
It is clear that the effect of prominence of a stressed syllable is
achieved due to distinctions in its articulatory and auditory characteristics
which vary in different languages. Thus the most suitable and generally
accepted approach lies in studying the nature of word stress.
Word stress
should be defined as a complex phenomenon marked by
the changes of force, pitch, quantitative and qualitative components. The
correlation of these components determines the nature of word stress in
an individual language, so that:
1. force (dynamic) stress implies greater force and intensity of articula-
tion in stressed syllables;