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75
2. tonic (musical) stress is connected with the variations of voice pitch
in stressed syllables;
3. quantitative stress concerns the increase of the length of nuclear vo-
wels in stressed syllables;
4. qualitative stress deals with the colour of nuclear vowels, which re-
veal all their distinctive features in stressed syllables.
It would be fair to mention that the predominance of one component
within a single language is less frequent than the combination of different
components. For instance, in Swedish the force stress is combined with
the tonic one: the word
komma
changes the meaning from
‘comma’
into
‘come’
when its stressed syllable gets additional differentiation in tone.
Yet Chinese is characterized by the tonic stress only: the word
chu
chan-
ges its meaning according to the pitch of the voice into
pig
(level tone),
bamboo
(rising tone),
to live
(falling tone).
The nature of word stress in English is a disputable question. It is
traditionally defined as mostly dynamic stress with some tonic compo-
nent. But modern phonology suggests another approach. Some linguists
(D. Crystal, A.G. Gimson, S.F. Leontyeva, and others) state that the spe-
cial prominence of English stressed syllables is manifested not only
through the increase of intensity and pitch variations, but also through the
changes in the quantity of vowels and quality of vowels and consonants.
Indeed, if we compare stressed and unstressed syllables in the words
abstract
['æbstrækt] and
to abstract
[ǩb'strækt], we may notice the fol-
lowing peculiarities of the stressed syllables:
— their force of stressed syllables is greater, as the articulation is
more energetic;
— the voice pitch is higher, because the vocal cords and the walls of
the resonator are more tense;
— the quantity of the vowel [æ] in [ǩb'strækt] is greater, as it is lon-
ger;
— the quality of the second vowel [æ] in ['æbstrækt] is also diffe-
rent, because it changes the distinctive features from a broad vari-
ant of the open vowel closer to a narrow one.
So the problem of components interrelation in the English word stress
is still awaiting its solution.
76
As far as the Russian language is concerned, the word stress presents
the combination of force, quantitative and qualitative components. For
example, the vowel
[и] is pronounced with different length in stressed
and unstressed syllables in the words
идú
and
úдиш
; the quality of the
vowel
[о] in the words
грозá
and
грóзы
undergoes great changes because
of word stress.
§ 2. Placement of word stress in English
The traditional classification of languages according to the placement
of word stress includes languages with fixed and free stress.
If the stress is limited to a particular syllable of a polysyllabic word,
it is called
fixed
. For example, in French the stress always falls on the last
syllable of the word, in Finnish and Czech — on the first syllable, in Po-
lish — on the last but one syllable.
If the place of the
stress is not confined to a specific position in a
word, it is called
free
. Such a placement of stress is exemplified in the
Russian language where the stress may fall on the first, second, last or
other syllables in different words (
óблако — морóз — молокó
).
The English language represents a more complicated case, because it
tends to combine free and fixed tendencies of the placement of word
stress. It holds true that word stress can fall on different syllables in Eng-
lish words ('
mother,
'
cinema, ba
'
lloon, de
'
mocracy
). Moreover, there are
cases of stress shifting which help to differentiate parts of speech or de-
rivative word-forms ('
import — to im
'
port,
'
library — li
'
brarian
). Still the
placement of stress in English words is highly predictable, as its position
in most cases is the product of the historical language development.
In order to avoid accentual mistakes and difficulties in establishing
the stress pattern of English words, it is necessary for language learners
to know the basic rules of accentuation, which are presupposed by the
origin of English words and their rhythmic or morphemic structure.
§ 3. Degrees of word stress in English
According to the degree of prominence, word stress is divided into
primary
and
secondary stress
. Both types serve to single out stressed
77
syllables in a word, but the degree of prominence achieved by the pri-
mary stress is greater than that indicated by the secondary stress.
Notional words in every language have primary stress, which is also
termed ‘main’ or ‘nuclear’. The existence of secondary stress in polysyl-
labic words is not characteristic of all languages.
For example, English words with the number of syllables counted
one to four usually have one primary stress ('
toy,
'
owner,
'
character,
psy
'
chology
), but most words of more than four syllables have two
stresses: primary and secondary (
pro
'
nunci
'
ation
). In the Russian lan-
guage polysyllabic words have only one primary stress (
произношéние
).
The most common mistake made by Russian students consists in omitting
the secondary stress in words like
demonstration
[
'
demǩns'
treı∫n] under
the influence of the primary stress pattern
демонстрáция
. Therefore spe-
cial attention should be paid to this peculiarity of English word stress in
the process of language teaching.
The foresaid distribution of the degrees of word stress is backed up
by all linguists. However, the opinions of phoneticians differ concerning
the following question: how many degrees of stress are linguistically re-
levant in a word?
Russian linguists consider that unstressed syllables should not be
taken into account, whereas foreign ones state that there are actually as
many degrees of stress in a word as there are syllables.
British scholars usually distinguish three degrees of stress in a word:
— primary stress, which is the strongest;
— secondary stress, which is less prominent;
— weak stress, which is realized in unstressed syllables.
American scholars distinguish four degrees of word stress:
— primary stress;
— secondary stress;
— tertiary stress;
— weak stress.
The difference between the secondary and tertiary stresses is rather
vague and seems to be predetermined by the differences between British
and American variants of English.
78
For example, some suffixes of nouns and verbs get additional tertiary
stress in American English ('
terri
'
tory,
'
dictio
'
nary,
'
adver
'
tize
). Yet the
tendency to use tertiary stress on a post-tonic syllable is also traced in
modern British English.
Due to some peculiarities of the English language, some polysyllabic
words have two primary stresses ('
seven
'
teen
, '
good-
’
looking, to
'
mis
'
lead
).
The difference between them is marked by the predominance of some
components determining the nature of word stress.
The first main stress, which is called ‘pre-nuclear primary stress’, is
accompanied with the change of the pitch level height. The second main
stress, which is called ‘nuclear primary stress’, is affected by a change of
pitch direction and forms the accentual nucleus of a word. There are ca-
ses when the two primary stresses may be accompanied with a secondary
one ('
re
'
organi
'
zation
).
It’s necessary to mention that all the words with two primary stresses
in modern English may have variants in accentuation generally observed
in connected speech. They are usually pronounced with two primary
stresses in a careful normative copnversation and retain the difference
between the nuclear and pre-nuclear primary stress ('
indi
'
vidu
'
ality,
'
ir
'
regular
). But in a rapid colloquial conversation the degree of the first
primary stress may be changed into the secondary or even weak one
('
indi
'
vidu
'
ality, ir
'
regular
).
§ 4. Phonemic distribution
in stressed syllables
The accentual structure of the English language is closely connected
with the distribution of vowel and consonant phonemes.
All English vowels may occur in stressed syllables with the exception
of
[ǩ], which is never stressed. The intensity of English vowels in identi-
cal stressed positions is different. It is the highest in [a:] and then gradu-
ally reduces to [ı] as follows: [a:,
о:, ǩ:, i:, u:, æ, ɔ, e, u, ı].
English long vowels, diphthongs and diphthongoids retain their qua-
lity in stressed positions (
army
['a:mı],
eager
['i:gǩ],
waiter
['weıtǩ]).
Unstressed diphthongs may partially lose their glide quality (
subway
79
['s
∧
bweı]). Vowels [ı, u, ǩ] tend to occur in unstressed syllables. Sylla-
bles with the syllabic sonorants [l, m, n] are never stressed.
English consonants tend to keep their distinctive features in stressed
syllables: stops have a complete closure, fricatives have full friction,
fortis-lenis features distinction is clearly defined.
§ 5. Functions of the English word stress
In phonology the notion ‘word stress’ is replaced by the term ‘ac-
centeme’ introduced by V.A. Vassilyev.
The
accenteme
is a suprasegmental phonological unit which varies
in degrees, placement and performs different functions.
The functions of word stress as a unit of phonology are as follows:
constitutive, recognitive, and distinctive.
1. The constitutive function consists in the ability of word stress to or-
ganize the syllables into language units with a definite accentual
structure. A word does not exist without word stress, and any sound
continuum becomes a phrase only when it is divided into units orga-
nized by word stress into words.
2. The recognitive (identificatory) function of word stress enables a per-
son to identify a succession of syllables as the definite accentual pat-
tern of a word. Correct accentuation helps the listener to make the
process of communication easier, whereas misplacement of stress
prevents normal understanding.
3. The distinctive function of word stress consists in its ability to dif-
ferentiate the meaning of words and word-forms.
Primary accentemes are represented by stressed word positions. Weak
accentemes are found in unstressed positions.
Accentuation oppositions usually consist in the shifting of word stress
or changing its degrees, which may or may not be accompanied with
vowel reduction.
When primary word accentemes are opposed to weak ones, they help
to differentiate between words, word-forms or word combinations in the
English language: