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80
transport
['trænspo:rt] —
to transport
[trǩns'po:t];
mankind
['mænkaınd] —
mankind
[mæn'kaınd];
blackboard
['blækbo:d] —
black board
['blæk 'bo:d].
The same functions characterize the processes of word-building and
word-formation in the Russian language:
зáмок — замóк, безобразнáя —
безóбразная, ногú — нóги
.
§ 6. Stress tendencies in modern English
The accentual structure of English words is rather unstable due to
differences in the origin of English vocabulary. Modern English word-
stock presents a mixture of native and borrowed words, and it is small
wonder that lexical layers of different origin follow different tendencies
in accentuation.
Three main tendencies characterize word stress in the English lan-
guage: recessive, rhythmical, and retentive.
1. The
recessive tendency
is observed mostly in monosyllabic or disyl-
labic words of Anglo-Saxon origin and some French borrowings. It is
explained by the fact that in Germanic languages the stress originally
fell on the initial syllable or the second (root) syllable in words with
prefixes.
Unrestricted recessive tendency indicates native English words
without prefixes ('
mother,
'
swallow
) and assimilated French borrow-
ings dated back to the 15th century ('
reason,
'
colour
) with the stress
on the first syllable.
Restricted recessive tendency characterizes English words with
prefixes (
fore
'
see, be
'
gin
) where the root syllable is stressed.
2. The
rhythmical tendency
in present-day English is caused by the
rhythm of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables in polysyllabic
words. It explains the placement of primary stress on the third syllable
from the end in three- and four-syllable words (
ar
'
ticulate
) and the use
of secondary stress in multisyllabic French borrowings (
'
revo
'
lution
).
3. The
retentive tendency
is traced in the instability of the accentual
structure of English words. According to it a derivative often retains
81
the stress pattern of the original parent word: '
similar —
a
'
ssimilate,
'
recom
'
mend —
'
recommen
'
dation
.
For a long time the recessive and rhythmical tendencies have been in
constant interrelation. This is clearly shown on the diachronic level in the
process of historic assimilation of French borrowings. The shift of the
original French stress in trisyllabic words onto the first syllable is the
result of the strong recessive tendency and also the adaptation to the
weaker rhythmical tendency ('
faculty
, '
possible
).
On the synchronic level the gradual strengthening of the rhythmical
tendency becomes obvious. It may be illustrated by a great number of vari-
ations in the accentual structure of English multisyllabic words, which get
a spoken pronunciation variant with the stress on the second syllable ('
hos
-
pitable — ho
'
spitable,
'
distribute — dis
'
tribute,
'
aristocrat — a
'
ristocrat
).
The tertiary stress marking on the third syllable in American English
('
terri
'
tory
,
'
neces
'
sary
) is also an example of the rhythmical tendency.
§ 7. Stress patterns of English words
The distribution of stressed syllables into stress patterns helps to sys-
tematize the accentual structure of English words. The classification is
made according to the degrees of word stress and the number of stressed
syllables. It is also closely connected with the morphological type of
words and the semantic value of their parts (roots and affixes).
1. [┴
─ (─)].
The pattern with the primary stress on the first syllable marks:
— disyllabic words subjected to the recessive tendency ('
father
,
'
sunny
, '
palace
, '
office
);
— trisyllabic words with or without suffixes subjected to the rhyth-
mical tendency ('
family
, '
scientist
, '
populate
, '
active
);
— compound words with greater semantic significance of the first
component ('
gas-pipe
, '
bookcase
).
2. [─
┴
(─)].
The pattern with the primary stress on the second syllable is real-
ized in:
82
— disyllabic words with historical prefixes subjected to the restrict-
ed recessive tendency (
be
'
cause
,
pro
'
claim
,
a
'
part
,
for
'
get
);
— disyllabic verbs with the endings -
ate
, -
ise/ize
, -
y
(
nar
'
rate
,
com
'
prise
,
de
'
fy
);
— words of three or four syllables with suffixes subjected to the
rhythmical tendency (
phi
'
lology
,
de
'
mocracy
,
ex
'
perience
,
o
'
riginate
).
3. [┴ (─) ┴ (─)].
The pattern with two primary stresses is generally observed in:
— compound nouns or adjectives, consisting of two roots ('
well-
'
bred
, '
absent-
'
minded
, '
tea-
'
pot
, '
ice-
'
cream
);
— composite verbs with postpositions ('
get
'
up
, '
come
'
out
, '
give
'
in
);
— compound words with separable prefixes ('
un
'
fair
, '
dis
'
appear
,
'
ex
'
minister
, '
re
'
play
).
4. [┴ ┬ ─].
The pattern with primary stress followed by the secondary one is
very common among compound words as the accentuation variant of
the third pattern ('
hair-
'
dresser,
'
dog-
'
killer,
'
sub
'
structure
). It is often
realized in connected speech.
5. [(─) ┬ (─) (┴) ─].
The pattern with the secondary stress preceding the primary one
marks a great number of simple polysyllabic words with affixes
(
'
intu
'
ition,
'
govern
'
mental, pe
'
culi
'
arity,
'
repre
'
sent
). It is as well
found in compound words as the accentuation variant of the third
pattern in connected speech (
'
misin
'
terpret
).
6. [┴ ┴ ┴ (┴)].
The pattern with three and more primary stresses is characteristic
of initial compound abbreviations ('
B
'
B
'
C (British Broadcasting Cor-
poration),
'
N
'
Y
'
S
'
E (New York Stock Exchange)
.
7. [┬ (─) ┬ (─) ┴ ─].
83
The pattern with two secondary stresses preceding the primary
one is found in a very small number of words with the stressed pre-
fixes, roots and suffixes ('
sub
'
organ
'
ization,
'
indilviduali
'
zation
).
8. [┴ ┴ (─)
┬
─].
The pattern with two primary stresses preceding the secondary
one is rarely found in compound words with separable prefixes
('
un
'
trustlworthy
).
The patters described above suggest the idea of great variability
in the accentuation of English words. The most widely used are pat-
terns
# 1, 2, 4 and 5, which cover the main part of common English
vocabulary. Still there are a lot of words which have variants in ac-
centuation. They may differ in:
— number of stresses:
UNSC
[┴ ┴ ┴ ┴] or [┴ ─ ─ ┴];
— place of stress:
laryngoscope
[┴ ─ ─ ─] or [─ ┴ ─ ─];
— degree of stress:
disability
[┴ ─ ┴ ─ ─] or
[┬
─
┴ ─ ─]; etc.
This fact underlines the instability of English accentual structure mul-
tiplied in connected speech.
§ 8. Basic rules of accentuation
Stress tendencies and the system of stress patterns helps to establish
basic rules of accentuation, which are very useful for language learners.
The accentual structure of simple and derivative words is rather com-
plicated.
Language learners should stick to the following rules:
— most disyllabic words have stress on the first syllable ('
water
,
'
finish
);
— disyllabic words with prefixes of no referential meaning of their
own have stress on the second syllable (
mis
'
take
;
be
'
hind
);
— most three- and four-syllable words have stress on the third syl-
lable from the end ('
criticism
,
re
'
markable
);
— four-syllable words with suffixes -
ary
, -
ory
have stress on the first
syllable ('
stationary
, '
territory
);
84
— polysyllabic words with the primary stress on the third syllable
have secondary stress on the first syllable ('
proba
'
bility
);
— polysyllabic words with the primary stress on the fourth and
fifth syllable have secondary stress on the second syllable
(
arlticu
'
lation
);
— polysyllabic words with separable prefixes with a distinct
meaning have two primary stresses ('
un
'
known
, '
dis
'
charge
,
'
re
'
pay
, '
mispro
'
nounce,
'
pre-
'
war,
'
ex-
'
wife,
'
inter
'
view,
'
anti-
ag
'
gressive
).
Special attention should be paid to the accentual structure of com-
pound words. Variability in the accentuation of English words is multi-
plied many times because of the variability in compound structures of the
English language.
In order not to make mistakes, the following rules should be ob-
served:
— compound numerals have two primary stresses ('
twenty
-'
four
);
— compound adjectives are generally double-stressed ('
well
-
'
known
);
— compound adjectives with semantically weak second component
are single-stressed ('
childlike
), but they are not numerous;
— compound verbs with post-positions get two main stresses ('
put
'
off
);
— compound nouns are usually single-stressed ('
strong-box
), and
thus differ from word combination with two stressed words
('
strong
'
box
);
— compound nouns with the equal significance of both elements are
double-stressed ('
ice
-'
cream
), but they are quite rare.
§ 9. Variations of word stress in connected speech.
Sentence stress
The realization of English word stress in actual speech may not coin-
cide with that in individual words. As it’s been stated before, the notion