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85
of word stress is closely connected with the notion of
sentence stress
.
This connection is exercised with the help of their similar and different
features.
On the one hand, word stress and sentence stress have a lot in common:
— the accentual structure of a word predetermines the arrangement
of stresses in a phrase, because sentence stress usually falls on the
syllables marked by word stress;
— the stress pattern of a phrase is conditioned by the semantic and
syntactical value of words, as only notional words are generally
stressed;
— the rhythmical tendency of words and phrases is observed in the
alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables at approximately
equal intervals.
On the other hand, the demarcation of word stress and sentence stress
is rather distinct:
— the sphere of application is different, as they characterize diffe-
rent language units: word stress is applied to a word, but sentence
stress is applied to a phrase;
— the syntactical value of words isn’t always kept, because there are
cases when notional words are not stressed in a phrase (
I
'
don
’
t
like that
'
man
!);
— the rhythmic structure of a word and a phrase may not coincide,
as the number of stresses varies within isolated words and diffe-
rent phrases ('
Fif
'
teen
. → '
Open
'
page
'
fifteen
. →
He
'
mounted
'
fifteen
'
hills
.);
— the stress characteristics of a word are changed under the influ-
ence of the tempo of phrases, because quick speed of articulation
usually causes the dropping of secondary stress (
The
'
mass
demons
'
tration was sup
'
pressed by
'
local au
'
thorities
.).
So in connected speech the accentual structure of a word obtains ad-
ditional characteristics. This fact sometimes presents difficulties for lan-
guage learners. They should be aware of the most widely spread accen-
tual patterns of words, as well as of their modifications caused by rhythm,
melody and tempo of utterances.
86
Seminar 6
1. Prove that the syllabic and accentual structures of words are closely
connected.
2. What definitions of the term ‘word stress’ do you know? Which one
do you consider to be the most appropriate?
3. Name and characterize the components determining the nature of
word stress.
4. Discuss the nature of English word stress. What is the traditional
approach? What approach does modern phonology suggest? Illus-
trate your opinion.
5. What differences can you trace between word stress in English and
in Russian?
6. Speak about the classification of languages into those with fixed
stress and those with free stress.
7. What are the tendencies of the placement of stress in English
words?
8. Give a brief overview of a general classification of word stress made
on the basis of the degree of prominence.
9. How many degrees of word stress are possible? Discuss the opin-
ions of:
a) Russian linguists;
b) British linguists;
c) American linguists.
10. Explain the peculiarities of polysyllabic words in English which
concern the degrees of word stress. Are these retained in connected
speech?
11. What differences can you notice in the degrees and the position of
word stress in the English and Russian languages?
12. Give an account of the distribution of English vowel and consonant
phonemes in stressed syllables.
87
13. What functions does word stress perform?
14. Give a definition of the term ‘accenteme’. Where is it studied? What
types of accentemes do you know?
15. What are the functions of accentuation oppositions?
16. What tendencies effect the position of word stress in English?
17. Speak about the recessive tendency. Give examples to illustrate its
influence on borrowings in English.
18. What caused the appearance of rhythmical tendency?
19. Prove the interrelation of both tendencies in the accentual structure
of English words.
20. What peculiarity marks the accentual structure of English words
with retentive tendency?
21. Which stress tendency prevails in modern English?
22. What are the most typical stress patterns of English words? What
other stress patterns do you know? Give examples to illustrate
them.
23. Is the accentual structure of English stable? Why? / Why not?
24. What are the basic rules of word accentuation? Speak about:
a) peculiarities of word stress in simple and derivative words;
b) peculiarities of word stress in compound words.
25. What is the connection of word stress and sentence stress? Comment
on the similar and different features of these phenomena.
26. Why does the study of the accentual structure of English words
cause difficulties for language learners?
88
Lecture 7
INTONA
TION IN ENGLISH
§ 1. General characteristics of intonation
Intonation is a language universal, there are no languages which are
spoken without any change of intonation. The role and functions of into-
nation get various interpretations in different linguistic schools.
Intonation is a phonetic phenomenon generally studied within the
following language aspects: acoustic, auditory and functional.
The acoustic and auditory characteristics of intonation are combined
within the perception level; the first present special interest for research
work in theoretical phonetics, the second are connected with teaching prac-
tice. The functional level actualizes linguistic functions of intonation.
§ 2. Foreign views of the problem of intonation
There are different approaches to the problem of intonation in British
and American linguistics.
I.
The first is
contour analysis
, which is widely used in Great Britain.
Its representatives are H. Sweet, D. Jones, G. Palmer, and others.
Intonation is defined as a layer that is superimposed on the lexico-
grammatical structure and serves to express the speaker’s attitude to the
situation with the help of tone-blocks — the smallest meaningful units,
consisting of pre-head, head and nucleus taken altogether. Ten tone-block
types are distinguished and then combined with sentence types (state-
ment, question, exclamation, command).
II.
The second is the
grammatical study of intonation
worked out
by the British linguist M. Halliday.
89
According to it the main unit of intonation is a clause which presents
a complex of three systemic variables: tonality, tonicity and tone. Tona-
lity marks the beginning and the end of a tone-group. Tonicity marks the
focal point of each tone-group. Tones mark the nucleus and convey the
attitude of the speaker. These parts of clauses are connected with the help
of grammatical categories and carry out the syntactical function. Thus the
statement “
I’d like to
” may have several attitudinal meanings determined
by the pre-nuclear and nuclear choices: neutral (Low Fall), non-commit-
tal (Low Rise), contradictory (High Rise), reserved (Fall Rise), committal
(Rise-Fall).
II
I.
The American school of intonation founded by K. Pike considers
pitch phonemes and contours to be the main units of intonation, which
have their own meanings, but stand apart from the communicative func-
tion of intonation. This approach is treated by most linguists as ‘
me-
chanical
’.
IV.
D. Crystal represents the
extralinguistic study of intonation
. He
states that it is impossible to explain intonational meaning only with the
help of grammatical or attitudinal means. He ignores the significance of
pre-head and head choices and deals only with terminal nuclear tones,
which should have both linguistic and extralinguistic marking.
According to D. Crystal, there are nine ways of saying “
Yes
”
as an
answer to the question “
Will you marry me?
”:
1) Low Fall — the most neutral tone, it reflects a detached, unemo-
tional statement of fact;
2) Full Fall — an emotionally involved tone, the involvement of the
speaker determines the onset pitch, whereas the choice of emo-
tion (surprise, excitement, irritation) depends on facial expression
of the speaker;
3) Mid Fall — a routine tone that conveys detached and unexcited
attitude;
4) Low Rise — an emotional tone, the attitude is told by the speak-
er’s facial expression: with a ‘happy’ face the tone is sympathetic
and friendly, with a ‘grim’ face it is guarded and ominous.
5) Full Rise — an emotionally involved tone meaning disbelief or shock,
the extent of the emotion is determined by the width of the tone;