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6) High Rise — an emotional tone, often used in echoing what has
just been said, it reflects mild query or puzzlement;
7) Level tone — conveys bored, sarcastic, ironic attitude of the
speaker;
8) Fall-Rise — a strongly emotional tone, the emotion is determined
by the expression of the speaker’s face: a ‘straight’ or ‘negative’
face conveys uncertainty, doubt, or tentativeness, a ‘positive’ face
conveys encouragement or urgency;
9) Rise-fall — a tone that presents strong emotional involvement,
depending on the face the attitude might be delighted, challeng-
ing, or complacent.
Thus the linguistic study of intonation in foreign linguistics is restricted
by pitch movements (melody) which determine its outer physical expres-
sion. The priority of the pitch parameter is quite evident, but real commu-
nication involves the change of other intonation parameters as well.
§ 3. Problem of intonation
in Russian linguistics
There is wide agreement among Russian linguists about the definition
of intonation on the perception level.
Intonation
is a complex unity
formed by significant variations of pitch, loudness and tempo closely
related.
Pitch variations include significant moves of the voice up and down.
The degree of loudness determines the force of utterance and the promi-
nence of words. The tempo is determined by the rate of speech and the
length of pauses. Some linguists also mark speech timbre as the fourth
component of intonation. It definitely conveys certain shades of attitudi-
nal or emotional meaning but there is no good reason to consider timbre
alongside with three other components of intonation, because it has not
been thoroughly described yet.
It’s necessary to mention that the term ‘intonation’ isn’t considered to
be a happy one in theoretical phonetics, as it is too many-sided. M. Sokolo-
va substitutes it with the term ‘
prosody
’, which embraces the three main
91
prosodic components: pitch, loudness and tempo. This term is widely
used in modern linguistic literature, because it is more adequate and
causes no misunderstanding.
The prosodic components of intonation and their speech realizations
are interconnected. Every speech syllable has a special pitch colouring and
bears a definite amount of loudness. Together with the speech tempo they
form an intonation pattern which is the basic unit of intonation.
An intonation pattern contains a nucleus which may or may not be
preceded or followed by other stressed or unstressed syllables. The
boundaries of an intonation pattern are marked by temporal pauses. Into-
nation patterns are actualized in intonation groups.
An intonation group (a speech syntagm) presents a semantically and
syntactically complete group of words which may have different length:
from one word to a group of words or a sentence.
For example:
\
Yes.
I
\
do.
I
\
like it.
I like that
\
too.
§ 4. Prosodic components of intonation.
Structure of English intonation patterns
As it’s been stated before, there are three prosodic components of in-
tonation: pitch, loudness and tempo, which serve to actualize syntagms
and sentences. They are interdependent and form the structure of an into-
nation pattern.
I.
The
pitch component
or
speech melody
includes distinct varia-
tions of intonation in the direction of pitch, pitch level and pitch range.
It’s necessary to consider them thoroughly.
1. Variations in the direction of pitch give greater prominence to one of
the syllables and form the nucleus of an intonation pattern.
There are eight nuclear tones in modern English: Low Fall (
\
No
),
High Fall (
\
No
), Low Rise (
/
No
), High Rise (
/
No
), Fall-Rise (
\/
No
),
Rise-Fall (
/\
No
), Rise-Fall-Rise (
/\/
No
) and Mid-Level (>
No
).
92
The first five of these are the most important nuclear tones cha-
racteristic of English. They have different meanings. Low Fall and
High Fall usually express certainty, completeness, and independence.
Low Rise and High Rise vise versa express uncertainty, incomplete-
ness or dependence. Fall-Rise combines the meaning of certainty
with that of incompleteness, thus suggesting that there is something
else to be said. It may occur within one syllable or spread over two or
more syllables (
\
Fortunately I
/
do
.).
The last three tones are not considered to be essential ones. Rise-
Fall and Rise-Fall-Rise add some refinement to speech and can be
easily replaced by basic nuclear tones without making considerable
changes in the meaning of the utterance: Rise-Fall by High Fall and
Rise-Fall-Rise by Fall-Rise. Mid-Level tone is characteristic of spon-
taneous speech when replacing the rising tone (
After
'
everything
you’ve
>
said
|
I
'
don’t want to
\
go there
!).
2. The pitch level parameter includes variations of the normal range of
speaking voice within a given interval between its lower and upper
limits. There are three pitch levels: high, medium, and low.
High level
Medium level
Low level
3. The pitch range is the interval between two pitch levels from the
highest-pitched to the lowest-pitched syllables. The pitch range may
be normal, wide, and narrow.
↑
↑
↕
↓
↑
|
↕
↓
↓
↕
Normal
Wide
Narrow
(of high, medium, low levels)
II.
The
loudness component
of intonation or
force of the utterance
includes changes in the level of loudness.
93
They may cause various semantic differences. For example, an over-
all loudness level conveys extreme emotions, such as anger, menace, or
excitement. Loudness changes are inseparably connected with pitch vari-
ations, because both of them create the effect of accentuation.
III.
The
tempo component
of intonation implies variations in the
rate of the utterance and pausation.
a) The rate of speech is divided into normal, fast and slow.
It differs according to the importance of the parts of the utterance,
since the important ones are spoken slower, but unimportant ones are
pronounced at a greater speed.
b) Pauses are complete stops of phonation dividing a stretch of
speech into smaller units.
According to their length, the following kinds of pauses are distin-
guished:
— short pauses, which separate intonation groups within a phrase;
— longer pauses, which manifest the end of the phrase;
— very long pauses, which are used to separate phonetic wholes.
From the functional point of view there exist:
— syntactic pauses, which separate phonopassages, phrases, intona-
tion groups;
— emphatic pauses, which mark parts of the utterance especially
important for the speaker (She is the most ¦ talented actress I’ve
ever met ||);
— hesitation pauses, which are used in spontaneous speech to think
over what to say next; they may be silent (It’s rather a ... difficult
question ||) or filled (I’ll have to ... eeh ... think it over ||).
The changes of pitch, loudness and tempo are not accidental. They
are formalized in the abstracted set of intonation structures called
intona-
tion patterns
, which form the prosodic system of the English language.
Definite intonation patterns are actualized in real communicative situa-
tions with the help of intonation groups.
An
intonation group
is a word or a group of words characterized by
a certain intonation pattern complete from the point of view of meaning.
94
For example, the sentence ‘
I suppose he’ll be here in a moment
’
may be
divided in two intonation groups: ‘
I suppose
’
and ‘
he’ll be here in a mo-
ment
’.
The
structure of an intonation pattern
potentially includes the pre-
head, the head, the nucleus and the tail:
— the pre-head contains unstressed and half-stressed syllables pre-
ceding the head;
— the head includes syllables from the first stressed up to the last
stressed one;
— the nucleus is the last stressed syllable presenting the change in
the pitch direction;
— the tail consists of unstressed and half-stressed syllables follow-
ing the nucleus.
The boundaries of an intonation pattern are marked by complete stops
of phonation or temporal pauses.
The abovementioned structure of an intonation pattern may be further
grouped into two larger units:
1) The pre-nuclear part of the intonation pattern is formed with the
pre-head and the head.
It can present different variations of pitch patterns, which do not
usually affect the grammatical meaning of the utterance, but often
convey meanings associated with the speaker’s attitude. There are
three common types of
prе-nuclear part:
— a descending type with the pitch level gradually descending to the
nucleus;
— an ascending type with the ascending sequence of syllables;
— a level type with the syllable set of approximately the same pitch
level.
2) The terminal part of the intonation pattern consists of the nucleus
and the tail.
It is the most significant part of the intonation pattern which deter-
mines the nuclear tone and the pitch level of the rest of the utterance. The
set of English nuclear tones includes five widely used common tones