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(Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, Fall-Rise), and three optional
tones (Rise-Fall, Rise-Fall-Rise, Mid-Level).
It’s important to mention, that every part of the intonation pattern
besides the nucleus is considered to be optional.
For example, let us consider the importance of sentence parts in the
following dialogue:
Who’s done it?
—
Well, that’s Jack actually.
It is obvious that in the second sentence of the dialogue the nucleus
‘
Jack
’ is the only part of the intonation group which is really informative.
All other parts (the pre-head ‘
well
’, the head ‘
that’s
’, the tail ‘
actually
’)
can be omitted in real speech, because they are not necessary for under-
standing the meaning.
§ 5. Methods of indicating intonation
The best way of representing intonation in the text is the system of
special symbols:
— level arrows which indicate the starting point of the head (→);
— superscript line signs representing stressed syllables (');
— interlinear line signs representing half-stressed syllables (
ı
);
— downward and upward arrows or slants which indicate the nu-
cleus (\);
— vertical bars indicating syntactic pauses ( || or | );
— wavy bars indicating emphatic or hesitation pauses (¦).
The abstract notation of intonation is usually presented by the system
of tonograms with dots, dashes and slash marks which are put at the nec-
essary pitch level:
— two parallel horizontal lines (staves) represent the range of human
voice;
— dashes represent a level tone of stressed syllables (─);
— dots represent unstressed syllables (·);
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— downward and upward curves represent the final nuclear tone;
— vertical bars indicate the temporal component (|| , | or ¦).
This representation is called ‘a stave’ or ‘a tonogram’.
§ 6. Functions of intonation
Intonation is an important means of human communication. On the
functional level intonation is studied as the list of its linguistic functions
and the ways of their differentiation.
One of the most developed classifications in foreign linguistics is
presented by D.Crystal, who distinguishes the following
functions of
intonation
:
— the emotional function, which serves to express attitudinal mean-
ing (interest, impatience, delight, irony, shock, anger, etc.);
— the grammatical function, which helps to identify certain gram-
matical structures in oral speech (statement, question, exclama-
tion, command);
— the informational function, which draws the listener’s attention to
the new information in an utterance with the help of the most
prominent tone;
— the textual function, which helps to contrast and organize mean-
ingful units larger than the sentence;
— the psychological function, which splits stretches of speech into
units that are easier to perceive and memorize;
— the indexical function, which serves an important marker of per-
sonal or social identity with the help of distinctive prosodic fea-
tures.
Russian linguists consider the functional aspect of intonation in a dif-
ferent way. Intonation is treated as a complex phenomenon with a ge-
neral function of communication. This communicative function of into-
nation is realized in the process of speech communication and serves:
— to structure the information content of a text and identify new
information;
97
— to determine the speech function of a phrase and indicate sentence
types;
— to convey attitudinal meaning (surprise, annoyance, etc.);
— to structure a text and organize smaller units (phrases, intonation
groups);
— to differentiate between the meaning of the units with the same
grammatical structure and lexical composition;
— to characterize a particular style of oral speech.
For the purposes of language teaching Russian phoneticians (M.A. So-
kolova, K.P. Gintovt, and others) define the following
two main func-
tions of intonation
as a powerful means of communication: the constitu-
tive and the distinctive ones.
1. The constitutive function characterizes intonation as an organizing
mechanism.
On the one hand, it delimitates texts into intonation groups with
a certain structure; on the other hand, it integrates intonation groups
when forming a complete text. A broad classification of intonation
patterns, different and specific in their nature, is singled out in every
language. Their material realization helps the speaker to construct the
utterance and enables the listener to perceive it.
2. The distinctive function of intonation helps to distinguish commu-
nicative types of sentences, the actual meaning of a sentence, the
speaker’s attitude to its contents and the style of the utterance.
The distinctive function of intonation is realized in the opposition of
the same word sequences which differ in certain parameters of the intona-
tion pattern.
For example, the meaning of the phrases: ‘
If
Tom
calls let me know
at once
’ and ‘
If Tom
calls
let me know at once
’ is easily distinguished
thanks to the opposition of different intonation patterns of the first intona-
tion groups. The first sentence means that a few people are expected to
call but it is Tom who interests the speaker; the meaning of the second
one is that no one else but Tom is expected to call.
The opposition in the pitch parameters of the sentences ‘
I en
\
joyed it
’
and ‘
I en
/
joyed it
’ shows the reserved attitude of the speaker in the first
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case, and the attitude implying a continuation like ‘
but it could have been
a lot better
’ in the second one.
§ 7
.
The phonological aspect of intonation
The phonological (functional) aspect of intonation is studied by a
special branch of phonology called
intonology
. Numerous attemts to de-
scribe phonological facts of the intonation system in our country and
abroad show that there are far more questions here than in the field of
segmental phonology.
From the point of view of intonology all the constituents of an intona-
tion pattern form a complex system of abstract units. These phonological
units, just like phonemes, consist of a number of variants.
Let us consider this problem more carefully by the example of one of
the units of phonology.
The phonological tone units are called
terminal tonemes
. They con-
sist of a number of
allotones
: principal and subsidiary.
The principal allotone is realized in the nucleus — the most powerful
phonological unit that serves to distinguish the type of the sentence. For
example:
'
Tom
\
called me
. (statement)
'
Tom
/
called me
? (general question)
The subsidiary allotones get realization in the pre-head or in the tail
if there are any, for instance:
\
No
.
\
No, Mary
.
Oh,
\
no, Mary
.
The number of terminal tones indicates the number of intonation
groups, which may be important for the meaning. Then the division of the
sentence in two or more intonation groups conveys different ideas.
For example, let us analyze the following sentence: ‘
My partner who
went away on business last month has just arrived
.’
The division in two intonation groups indicates that the speaker has
more than one business partners:
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My partner
who went away on business last month
, |
has just arrived
||.
The division in three intonation groups means that he’s the only busi-
ness partner:
My partner
, |
who went away on business last month
, |
has just arrived
||.
Terminal tones also identify the semantic centre of the utterance and
single out the information. For example, the unusual stress of form words
instead of content ones expresses the speaker’s feelings and attitudes:
I
'
don’t
\
like him
. (neutral)
I
\
don’t
|
like him
. (annoyed)
Besides tonemes, the classification of phonological units constituting
intonation patterns includes other abstract units: intonemes, accentemes,
chronemes, etc. They also include variations.
§ 8
.
English rhythm
It’s impossible to describe English intonation without reference to
speech rhythm, because the interrelated prosodic components (pitch,
loudness, tempo) and speech rhythm are inseparably connected. Rhythm
makes up the framework of the spoken message.
A general term of ‘rhythm’ implies a regular recurrence of some phe-
nomenon in time. Speech production is naturally connected with the pro-
cess of breathing, it is conditioned by physiological factors and is charac-
terized by rhythm. Rhythm as a linguistic notion is realized in lexical,
syntactical and prosodic means, mostly in their combinations.
Speech rhythm
is traditionally defined as a recurrence of stressed
syllables at more or less equal periods of time in a speech continuum.
The type of rhythm depends on the language. There are two types of
languages:
— syllable-timed languages (French, Spanish), based on the syllabic
structure;
— stress-timed languages (English, German, Russian), based on the
so-called ‘beats’ or ‘stress pulses’.