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In syllable-timed languages the speaker gives approximately equal
period to each syllable no matter whether it is stressed or unstressed. This
produces the effect of even rhythm.
In stress-timed languages the effect of rhythm is based on units lar-
ger than syllable. The so-called ‘stress pulses’ follow each other in con-
nected speech at roughly equal periods of time no matter how many
stressed syllables are between them. Thus the distribution of syllables
within rhythmic groups is unequal and the regularity is provided by strong
‘beats’.
The more unstressed syllables there are after a stressed one, the
quicker they must be pronounced, for example:
The
One
Two
Three
Four
One
and
Two
and
Three
and
Four
One
and a
Two
and a
Three
and a
Four
One
and then a
Two
and then a
Three
and then a
Four
The peculiarities of English rhythm implying the regular stress-timed
pulses of speech, create the abrupt effect of English rhythm. It has the
immediate connection with such phonetic phenomena as vowel reduction
and elision, placement of word-stress and sentence-stress.
The effect of English rhythm is also presupposed by the analytical
structure of the language. It explains greater prominence of notional words
and a considerable number of unstressed monosyllabic form words.
It is undoubtful that the most striking rhythmicality is observed in
poetry.
Seminar 7
1. Why is intonation viewed as a language universal?
2. What are the levels of studying intonation? What language aspects
do they comprise?
3. Discuss the priorities in the linguistic study of intonation in foreign
linguistics. Explain the essence of the theories by:
101
a) H. Sweet;
b) M. Halliday;
c) K. Pike;
d) D. Crystal.
4. Give your arguments for the definition of intonation suggested by
Russian linguists.
5. What is the difference between the terms ‘intonation’ and ‘prosody’?
6. Define the term ‘intonation pattern’. How is it related to the term
‘intonation group’?
7. What components form the structure of an intonation pattern?
8. What does the pitch component of intonation include?
9. What effect is achieved by variations in the direction of pitch?
10. What nuclear tones are distinguished in modern English? Which of
them do you think to be necessary for pronunciation teaching?
Why?
11. What other pitch parameters are important in modifying the contour
of an intonation pattern?
12. Characterize the loudness component of intonation. Suggest your
reasons for its connection with the pitch component.
13. What does the term ‘tempo’ imply? Explain the peculiarities of rate
and pausation.
14. How is the prosodic system of the English language formed and
actualized in the process of communication?
15. Speak on the structure of the intonation pattern.
16. Discuss the pre-nuclear and terminal parts of the intonation pattern.
Which has the greatest functional value? Why?
17. Which parts of the intonation pattern are optional? Give your rea-
sons.
18. What are the ways of representing intonation?
19. How is the functional aspect of intonation presented in foreign lin-
guistics?
102
20. What conception of the functional level of intonation is followed in
home linguistics?
21. State the value of the communicative function of intonation.
22. What functions of intonation are important for language teaching?
Characterize the role of these functions in the process of communi-
cation.
23. Suggest examples for the distinctive function of intonation.
24. Prove that intonation is a unit of phonology.
25. Give the classification of phonological units. Illustrate its main ideas
with the help of tonemes.
26. What is your understanding of intonation and its role in language
organization?
27. What types of rhythmic language organization do you know?
28. Speak on the peculiarities of English rhythm.
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Lecture 8
STYLISTIC AND REGIONAL VARIETIES
OF ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION
§ 1. Spoken language as the object
of linguistic investigation
The ability to use language presupposes the existence of two forms of
it: spoken and written, which are different in origin and practice. Spoken
language is as old as mankind, written language is a comparatively recent
cultural development. Speaking is acquired without any specific formal
instruction. Writing as the symbolic representation of the language by
graphic signs must be taught and learned through a deliberate effort. Thus
the origin of the written language lies in the spoken one, but not the other
way round.
For a long time the linguistic research was based on the assumption
that only the written form of language can serve an object of theoretical
investigation. Written language usually has a generally accepted standard
which is the same throughout the country. The spoken form of the lan-
guage was considered not worthy of scientific analysis because of a great
number of distinctions from the literary norm. The understanding that the
language is not an isolated phenomenon, but the part of society, gave rise
to sociolinguistics and changed the approach to linguistic studies.
Nowadays different language phenomena are viewed as a tool of
communication and any linguistic system is explained in connection with
numerous extralinguistic factors. Spoken language, which presents regu-
lar variations greatly depending on non-linguistic factors, has thus be-
come a reliable object of linguistic investigation.
In the past years there appeared a great many of linguistic sciences
correlated with different variations of language use in connection with
social factors, such as functional stylistics, psycholinguistics, ethnolin-
104
guistics, anthropological linguistics, varianthology, and others. They can
study language phenomena within three levels: phonetic, lexical and
grammatical.
Speaking about phonetics it becomes obvious that pronunciation is by
no means homogeneous. It changes under the influence of numerous fac-
tors. The linguistic factors are studied in phonology, whereas the extra-
linguistic ones refer to other branches of phonetics which are linked with
sociolinguistic sciences.
The varieties of language phonetic means of different territoriality
conditioned by language communities ranging from small groups to na-
tions, are studied within
phonovarianthology
. The problems of different
styles of pronunciation are studied within
phonostylistics
. It analyses the
spoken form of language expression and deals with those phonetic means
used in some particular situations under the influence of a certain set of
extralinguistic factors.
It should be mentioned that problems of phonostylistics and phonovari-
anthology are thoroughly investigated in the book by M.A. Sokolova men-
tioned in the previous sections [19]. Here we’ll try to give a brief overview
of the main poins and add some new information on the subject.
§ 2. Territorial varieties
of English pronunciation
Territorial differentiation of any language is closely connected with
social and cultural conditions and becomes the basis of its division into
national variants and regional dialects. They are studied within rather a
young branch of linguistics —
varianthology
, which conducts language
research on the levels of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar.
2.1. National variants and regional accents
of the English language
Territorial differentiations in pronunciation of the language observed
in the speech of the whole nation are called
national pronunciation
variants
.