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30
Lecture 3
T
HE SYSTEM OF ENGLISH PHONEMES
§ 1. Vowel and
consonant phonemes
There are two main classes of sounds traditionally distinguished in
any language — consonants and vowels. The opposition ‘vowels vs. con-
sonants’ is a linguistic universal and it is clearly seen on all levels of
sound production.
This distinction on the acoustic level is clear due to the effect pro-
duced by these sounds: consonants have voice and noise combined, while
vowels consist of voice only.
On the articulatory level the difference is exercised through the work
of speech organs: vowels are produced without any obstruction, conso-
nants are produced with the help of various obstructions, such as com-
plete, partial or intermittent blockages of the air passage.
On the perception level the difference is understood through the inte-
gral characteristics of tone in vowels and the indispensable characteristics
of noise in consonants.
On the functional level both vowel and consonant classes of sounds are
represented as a set of phonemes established with the help of phonological
analysis. Each of the classes taken separately may undergo further classifi-
cations on the acoustic, articulatory, auditory and functional levels.
The first three levels should be studied simultaneously as there is no
sharp division between them.
Thus the articulatory classification defines the peculiarities of speech
sounds as the combination of articulatory, acoustic and auditory charac-
teristics.
The phonological classification studies the peculiarities of sounds
from the functional point of view.
31
§ 2. Articulatory and phonological views
on the classification of English consonants
2.1. General characteristics of English consonants
Consonants are speech sounds made with the air stream that meets a
complete, partial or intermittent obstruction in the mouth or nasal cavi-
ties. The closure blocks the air stream and the sound production is ac-
companied with certain audible noise characteristics.
The phonological analysis establishes 24 phonemes of the English con-
sonant system [p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v,
θ, ð, s,
z,
∫, j, h, t∫, ʤ, m, n, ŋ, w, r, l, j].
2.2. Articulatory classification
Articulatory classification organizes English consonants into certain
groups according to distinctive changes in the degree of noise, the manner
of articulation, the place of articulation, the presence of voice and the
position of the soft palate.
I.
The
degree of noise
is determined by the presence of voice and
noise characteristics. According to it English consonants are divided into
noise consonants and sonorants.
Noise consonants [p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v,
θ, ð, s,
z,
∫, j, h, t∫, ʤ] are cha-
racterized by noise component characteristic.
Sonorants [m, n, ŋ, w, r, l, j] are produced with tone prevailing over noise.
II.
The
manner of articulation
is determined by the type of obstruc-
tion. According to it English consonants are grouped into occlusive, con-
strictive and occlusive-constrictive.
Occlusive consonants are produced with a complete obstruction in the
mouth [p, t, k, b, d, g] or nasal cavities [m, n, ŋ]. The sounds [p, t, k,
b, d, g] are also called plosives or stops, because in their production
the air is released with plosion.
Constrictive consonants are produced with an incomplete obstruction
in the resonator, forming a narrow [f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ∫, j, h] or a wider
passage [w, r, l, j]. The sounds [f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ∫, j, h] are also called
fricatives, because in their production the air is released with fric-
tion.
32
Occlusive-constrictive consonants or affricates [t∫, ʤ] are produced
with a complete obstruction, which is slowly released with friction.
III.
The
place of articulation
is determined by the position of the
active organ of speech. According to it English consonants are divided
into labial, lingual and glottal. The class of labial consonants is further
subdivided into bilabial and labio-dental; the class of lingual — into fore-
lingual, mediolingual and backlingual.
1. Labial consonants are articulated by the lips. This class includes:
— bilabial consonants [p, b, m, w], produced with both lips;
— labio-dental consonants [f, v], articulated with the lower lip
against the upper teeth.
2. Lingual consonants are articulated by the tongue. This class is di-
vided into:
— forelingual consonants [t, d, s, z, ∫, j,
θ, ð, t∫, ʤ, n, l, r], produced
with the tip of the tongue;
— mediolingual consonant [j], produced with the front part of the
tongue;
— backlingual (velar) consonants [k, g, ŋ], produced with the back
part of the tongue.
The subclass of forelingual consonants may be grouped into:
— interdental consonants [θ, ð];
— alveolar consonants [t, d, s, z, n, l];
— post-alveolar consonant [r];
— palato-alveolar consonants [t∫, ʤ, ∫, j].
3. Glottal consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis.
It’s necessary to mention, that the
number of places of articula-
tion
may be different. Thus English consonants are divided into:
— unicentral [p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ∫, j, h, m, n, ŋ, r, l, j], which
have one point of articulation;
— bicentral [t∫, ʤ, w], which have two points of articulation.
IV.
The
voice characteristic
depends on the work of the vocal cords.
According to it English consonants are divided into:
33
— voiced [b, d, g, v, ð, z, ʤ, m, n, ŋ, w, r, l, j];
— voiceless [p, t, k, f, θ, s, ∫, h, t∫].
V.
According to the
position of the soft palate
all consonants are
classified into:
— oral consonants [p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ∫, j, h, t∫, ʤ, w, r, l,
j], produced when the soft palate is raised;
— nasal consonants [m, n, ŋ], produced when the soft palate is low-
ered.
2.3. Phonological classification
T
he phonological description of consonants partially follows the ar-
ticulatory one but still has certain distinctions. The same points are taken
into consideration (the degree of noise, the manner of articulation, the
place of articulation, the presence of voice, the position of the soft palate),
but they are studied from the point of view of the functional relevance
which is exemplified with the help of distinctive oppositions.
I.
The first two points of articulatory classification are the
degree of
noise
and the
manner of articulation
. They are considered to be relevant
for phonological description as well, but some disputes arise concerning
their primary importance.
For example, V.A. Vassilyev gives major importance to the type of ob-
struction and distinguishes the opposition of occlusive consonants vs. con-
strictive ones:
tea
[ti:]
— sea
[si:],
seed
[si:d]
— seas
[si:z],
pull
[pul]
— full
[ful],
boat
[bǩut]
— vote
[vǩut]. Each of the classes is then divided into
noise consonants and sonorants with further subdivisions.
consonants
÷
ø
occlusive
constrictive
÷
ø
÷
ø
noise consonants
sonorants
noise consonants
sonorants
÷
ø
÷
ø
plosives
affricates
medial
lateral
34
M.A. Sokolova suggests another approach and states the degree of
noise to be the first and basic principle of classification. Thus conso-
nants are divided into noise consonants and sonorants because of
great articulatory and acoustic differences between them. The phono-
logical relevance of this factor is proved by contrastive oppositions:
bake
[beık] —
make
[meık],
veal
[vi:l] —
wheel
[wi:l].
Each of the classes then undergoes further subdivisions.
consonants
÷
ø
noise
consonants
sonorants
÷
ò
ø
÷
ø
occlusive
constrictive
occlusive-
constrictive
occlusive
constrictive
÷
ø
lateral
medial
Still in spite of all the controversy in opinions, both characteristics are
essential for the phonological description of consonants.
II.
The principle of consonant classification according to the
place of
articulation
is fairly universal. On the basis of the position of the active
speech organ against the point of articulation English consonants are
classed into labial, lingual, glottal with further subdivisions.
consonants
÷
ò
ø
labial
lingual
glottal
÷
ø
÷
ò
ø
bilabial
labio-dental
forelingual
mediolingual
backlingual
This characteristic is relevant for phonological description. The fact
is proved by oppositions of consonants, which bring changes in meaning,
for example: