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phonemes representing types of units completely independent of any
phonetic properties which are higher than the phoneme. This approach
was originated by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure and advocated by the
Danish linguist L. Hjelmslev and his followers in Copenhagen Linguistic
Circle H.J. Uldall, and K. Togby.
The second and third views are rejected as purely idealistic concep-
tions which do not take into consideration the real human speech.
IV.
The physical view regards the phoneme as a family of related
sounds that have phonetic similarity and do not occur in the same pho-
netic context. This conception was proposed by D. Jones and shared by
B. Bloch and G. Trager. The lack of this approach is that it studies the
phoneme from the point of view of its articulatory characteristics only
without any regard to its functional aspects.
V.
According to the materialistic view originated by L.V. Shcherba,
the founder of Leningrad phonological school, the phoneme is defined as
a real, independent distinctive unit which has its material manifestation
in the form of allophones. The number of allophones is much greater than
the number of phonemes proper and they are incapable of differentiating
the meaning. This theory was developed by V.A. Vassilyev, who regard-
ed the phoneme as a dialectical unity of functional, material and abstract
aspects, which performs constitutive, distinctive and recognitive func-
tions. This view is widely recognized in modern phonology, its followers
are L.R. Zinder, M.I. Matusevich, V.A. Vassilyev, M.A. Sokolova and
others.
§ 5. Methods of phonological analysis
The aim of phonological (phonemic) analysis is to determine phone-
mic (functional) and non-phonemic (articulatory) differences of speech
sounds and to identify the inventory of language phonemes.
The phonological analysis of both unknown languages and languages
already described can be fulfilled within two steps.
The first step which is especially important when investigating an un-
known language is to identify the minimal segments of speech continuum
and record them graphically by means of allophonic transcription.
26
The second step is to arrange the sounds into functionally similar
groups in order to find contrastive phoneme sounds and allophones of the
same sounds.
There are two main methods of phonological investigation: the distri-
butional method and the semantic method, but they get different interpre-
tation in modern phonology.
I.
According to the
distributional method
phonemes of any language
are discovered by rigid classification of all the sounds pronounced by
native speakers according to the following laws of phonemic and allo-
phonic distribution:
— allophones of different phonemes occur in the same phonetic con-
text and their distribution is contrastive;
— allophones of the same phoneme(s) never occur in the same pho-
netic context, their distribution is complementary and the choice
depends on phonetic environment.
Numerous examples seem to qualify this approach.
Thus in the opposition
l
et —
p
et —
b
et
all initial sounds are different
phonemes, because they occur in the same initial position before a vowel.
At the same time [t
h
] and [t
o
] in
t
ake
and
le
t
present allophonic variants of
the same phoneme: [t
h
] never occurs in the final word position and never
follows [s], while [t
o
] never occurs initially before stressed vowels.
Still linguists find some lacks in this approach.
First, there are cases when two sounds are in complementary distribu-
tion, but are not referred to the same phonemes. For example, [h] occurs
only initially or before a vowel (
heat
) while
[ŋ] occurs only medially or
finally after a vowel and never occurs initially (
sing
).
Then there is one more possibility of distribution besides contrastive
and complementary ones. These are free variants of a single phoneme
when both sounds occur in a language but native speakers are inconsis-
tent in the way they use them (
калоши-галоши
).
Thus the distributional method doesn’t get a wide acknowledgement
in our home linguistics, because the distinctive function of the phoneme
is underestimated.
II.
The
semantic method
is based on the functional rule that pho-
nemes can distinguish words and morphemes when opposed to one an-
27
other. It consists in the systemic substitution of one sound for another in
the same phonetic context in order to find cases in which such a replace-
ment leads to the change of meaning. This procedure is called the com-
mutation test and it helps to establish minimal oppositional pairs of words
and word-forms presenting different meaning.
For example,
pin
can be successively substituted for
bin, sin, din, tin,
win
, and each minimal opposition will present different meanings. But the
substitution of [p
h
] for [p] in
pin
doesn’t bring about any change in mean-
ing, though it’s wrong from the point of view of English pronunciation
norm. So it’s possible to conclude that [p], [b], [s], [d], [t], [w] are different
phonemes whereas [p
h
] and [p] are allophones of the same phoneme.
Any phoneme of a language is opposed to another phoneme at least
in one minimal oppositional pair thus performing the distinctive function.
The phonemic structure of a language is established according to the sys-
tem of oppositions, which include minimal pairs of word-initial, word-
medial and word-final positions.
N.S. Trubetzkoy has worked out the classification of phonological
oppositions which is based on the number of distinctive features. It con-
cerns only relevant (distinctive) features of phonemes. The non-distinc-
tive features are not taken into consideration.
1. A single phonological opposition is established on the basis of a sin-
gle difference in the articulation of two speech sounds. For example,
the opposed phonemes in the minimal pair ‘
pen
—
ben
’ possess some
common features (occlusive, labial) and one differentiating feature
(fortis vs. lenis).
2. A double phonological opposition marks two differences in the ar-
ticulation and presents a sum of two single oppositions. For istance,
the minimal pair ‘
pen
—
den
’ presents one common feature (occlu-
sive) and two differentiating feature (labial vs. lingual, voiceless-
fortis vs. voiced-lenis).
3. A triple phonological opposition has three articulatory differences,
presenting a sum of three single oppositions. For example, there are
three differentiating features in the minimal pair ‘
pen — then
’ (oc-
clusive vs. constrictive, labial vs. dental, voiceless-fortis vs. voiced-
lenis).
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The semantic method is widely used in Russian and foreign linguis-
tics, as it attaches great significance to meaning and concerns both articu-
latory and functional characteristics of phonemes.
A thorough investigation of the problems of phonemes, allophones and
phones and different metods of phonological analysis is given in the book
by M.A. Sokolova “Theoretical phonetics of the English language” [19].
Seminar 2
1. What is the phoneme? Give the definition.
2. Explain the essence of the materialistic conception of the pho-
neme.
3. Discuss the aspects that the phoneme includes. Why none of them
can be ignored?
4. Give examples of the distinctive, constitutive and recognitive func-
tions of the phoneme.
5. What is the difference between phonemes and allophones? Which
of these notions serves as the representation of distinctive features
of a speech sound? What is the representation of non-distinctive
features?
6. What types of non-distinctive features of the phoneme do you know?
Give examples.
7. Is it important to differentiate between the principal and subsidiary
allophones of the phoneme? Why?
8. What units represent the realization of allophones in actual speech?
Explain the connection between phonemes and phones.
9. Comment on the difference between phonological and phonetic mis-
takes. State whether it is useful in teaching practice.
10. What types of transcription do you know? Which one would you
prefer in teaching pronunciation? Why?
11. Speak about the main phonological schools. Discuss the ideas rep-
resented in:
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a) the psychological view of the phoneme;
b) the functional view of the phoneme;
c) the abstract view of the phoneme;
d) the physical view of the phoneme;
e) the materialistic view of the phoneme.
12. What methods of phonemic analysis do you know?
13. Give a brief overview of the distributional method. State if there are
any lacks in this approach.
14. Explain the essence of the semantic method. Does it get a wide ac-
knowledgement in linguistics?
15. State the basic principles of commutation test. Give your own ex-
amples representing its work.
16. Speak about the theory of phonological oppositions by Trubetskoy.
Name types of oppositions and illustrate them with your own ex-
amples.