ВУЗ: Не указан
Категория: Не указан
Дисциплина: Не указана
Добавлен: 06.04.2021
Просмотров: 5006
Скачиваний: 88
As a rule, thematic groups deal with contexts on the level of the sen-
tence. Words in thematic groups are joined together by common contex-
tual associations within the framework of the sentence and reflect the
interlinking of things or events. Common contextual association of the
words, e.g.
tree — grow — green; journey — train — taxi — bags —
ticket
or
sunshine — brightly — blue
—
sky,
is due to the regular co-
occurrence of these words in a number of sentences. Words making up a
thematic group belong to different parts of speech and do not possess any
common denominator of meaning.
Contextual associations formed by the speaker of a language are usu-
ally conditioned by the context of situation which necessitates the use of
certain words. When watching a play, for example, we naturally speak of
the
actors
who
act
the main
parts,
of good (or bad)
staging
of the play, of
the wonderful
scenery
and so on. When we
go shopping
it is usual to
speak of the
prices,
of the
goods
we
buy,
of the
shops,
etc.
1
MEANING RELATIONS IN PARADIGMATICS AND
SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS
Modern English has a very extensive vocabulary. A question naturally
arises whether this enormous word-stock is composed of separate inde-
pendent lexical units, or it should perhaps be regarded as a certain struc-
tured system made up of numerous interdependent and interrelated sub-
systems or groups of words. This problem may be viewed in terms of the
possible ways of classifying vocabulary items.
Attempts to study the inner structure of the vocabulary revealed that in
spite of its heterogeneity the English word-stock may be analysed into
numerous sub-systems the members of which have some features in com-
mon, thus distinguishing them from the members of other lexical sub-
systems. Words can be classified in various ways. Here, however, we are
concerned only with the semantic classification of words. Classification
into monosemantic and polysemantic words is based on the number of
meanings the word possesses. More detailed semantic classifications are
generally based on the semantic similarity (or polarity) of words or their
component morphemes. The scope and the degree of similarity (polarity)
may be different.
Words may be classified according to the
concepts underlying their meaning. This
classification is closely connected with the
theory of conceptual or semantic fields. By the term “semantic fields” we
understand closely knit sectors of vocabulary each characterised by a
common concept. For example, the words
blue, red, yellow, black,
etc.
may be described as making up the semantic field of colours, the words
mother, father, brother, cousin,
etc. — as members of the semantic field
1
In practical language learning thematic groups are often listed under various head-
ings, e. g. “At the Theatre”, “At School”, “Shopping”, and are often found in textbooks and
courses of conversational English.
51
§ 45. Conceptual (or Semantic)
Fields
of kinship terms, the words
joy, happiness,
gaiety, enjoyment, etc.
as
be-
longing to the
field
of pleasurable emotions, and so on.
The members of the semantic fields are not synonyms but all of them
are joined together by some common semantic component — the concept
of colours or the concept of kinship, etc. This semantic component com-
mon to all the members of the field is sometimes described as the common
denominator of meaning. All members of the field are semantically inter-
dependent as each member helps to delimit and determine the meaning of
its neighbours and is semantically delimited and determined by them. It
follows that the word-meaning is to a great extent determined by the place
it occupies in its semantic field.
Thus the semantic field may be viewed as a set of lexical items
in
which the meaning of each is determined by the co-presence of the others*
It is argued that we cannot possibly know the exact meaning of the
word if we do not know the structure of the semantic field to which the
word belongs, the number of the members and the concepts covered by
them, etc. The meaning of the word
captain,
e.g., cannot be properly un-
derstood until we know the semantic field in which this
term
operates —
the army, the navy,
or
the merchant service.
It follows that the meaning
of the word
captain
is determined by the place it occupies among the
terms of the relevant rank system. In other words we know what
captain
means only if we know whether his subordinate is called
mate
or
first of-
ficer
(merchant service),
commander
(‘navy’) or
lieutenant
(‘army’).
Semantic dependence of the word on the structure of the field may be
also illustrated by comparing members of analogous conceptual fields in
different languages. Comparing, for example, kinship terms in Russian and
in English we observe that the meaning of the English term
mother-in-
law
is different from either the Russian
тёща
or
свекровь
as the English
term covers the whole area which in Russian is divided between the two
words. The same is true of the members of the semantic field of colours
(cf.
blue
—
синий, голубой),
of human body (cf.
hand, arm
—
рука)
and
others.
The theory of semantic field is severely criticised by Soviet linguists
mainly on philosophical grounds since some of the proponents of the se-
mantic-field theory hold the idealistic view that language is a kind of self-
contained entity standing between man and the world of reality (Zwisch-
enwelt). The followers of this theory argue that semantic fields reveal the
fact that human experience is analysed and elaborated in a unique way,
differing from one language to another. Broadly speaking they assert that
people speaking different languages actually have different concepts, as it
is through language that we ‘"see” the real world around us. In short, they
deny the primacy of matter forgetting that our concepts are formed not
only through linguistic experience, but primarily through our actual con-
tact with the real world. We know what
hot
means not only because we
know the word
hot,
but also because we burn our fingers when we touch
something very hot. A detailed critical analysis of the theory of semantic
fields is the subject-matter of general linguistics. Here we are concerned
with this theory only as a means of semantic classification of vocabulary
items.
52
Another point should be discussed in this connection. Lexical groups
described above may be very extensive and may cover big conceptual ar-
eas, e g.
space, matter, intellect,
etc.
1
Words making up such semantic fields may belong to different parts of
speech. For example, in the semantic field of space we find nouns: ex-
panse,
extent, surface,
etc.; verbs:
extend, spread, span,
etc.; adjectives’
spacious, roomy, vast, broad,
etc.
There may be comparatively’small lexical groups of words belonging
to the same part of speech and linked by a common concept. The words
bread, cheese, milk, meat,
etc. make up a group with the concept of food
as the common’ denominator of meaning. Such smaller lexical groups
consisting of words of the same part of speech are usually termed lexico-
semantic groups. It is observed that the criterion for joining words together
into semantic fields and lexico-semantic groups is the identity of one of
the components of their meaning found in all the lexical units making up
these lexical groups. Any of the semantic components may be chosen to
represent the group. For example, the word
saleswoman
may be analysed
into the semantic components ‘human’, ‘female’, ‘professional’.
2
Conse-
quently the word
saleswoman
may be included into a lexico-semantic
group under the heading of
human
together with the words
man, woman,
boy, girl,
etc. and under the heading
female
with the
words
girl, wife,
woman
and also together with the words
teacher, pilot, butcher,
etc., as
professionals.
It should also be pointed out that different meanings of polysemantic
words make it possible to refer the same word to different lexico-semantic
groups. Thus, e.g.
make
in the meaning of ‘construct’ is naturally a mem-
ber of the same lexico-semantic group as the verbs
produce, manufac-
ture,
etc , whereas in the meaning of
compel
it is regarded as a member of
a different lexico-semantic group made up by the verbs
force, induce,
etc.
Lexico-semantic groups seem to play a very important role in deter-
mining individual meanings of polysemantic words in lexical contexts.
Analysing lexical contexts
3
we saw that the verb
take,
e.g,, in combina-
tion with any member of the lexical group denoting means of transporta-
tion is synonymous with the verb
go (take the tram, the bus,
etc.). When
combined with members of another lexical group the same verb is syn-
onymous with
to drink (to take tea, coffee,
etc.). Such word-groups are
often used not only in scientific lexicological analysis, but also in practical
class-room teaching. In a number of textbooks we find words with some
common denominator of meaning listed under the headings
Flowers,
Fruit, Domestic Animals,
and so on.
Another approach to the classification of vo-
cabulary items into lexico-semantic groups is
the study of hyponymic relations between
words. By h y p o n y m y is meant a se-
mantic relationship of inclusion. Thus, e.g.,
vehicle
includes
car, bus, taxi
and so on;
oak
implies
tree;
1
See, e. g.,
Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases,
London, 1973.
2
See ‘Methods ... ‘, § 6. p. 216.
3
See ‘Semasiology’, § 41, p. 48.
53
§ 46. Hyponymic (Hierarchical)
Structures and Lexico-Semantic
Groups
horse
entails
animal; table
entails
furniture.
Thus the hyponymic rela-
tionship may be viewed as the hierarchical relationship between the mean-
ing of the general and the individual terms.
The general term
(vehicle,
tree, animal, etc.) is sometimes referred to
as the classifier and serves to describe the lexico-semantic groups, e.g.
Lexico-semantic groups (LSG) of vehicles, movement, emotions, etc.
The individual terms can be said to contain (or entail) the meaning of
the general term in addition to their individual meanings which distinguish
them from each other (cf. the classifier
move
and the members of the
group
walk, run, saunter,
etc.).
It is of importance to
note
that in such hierarchical structures certain
words may be both classifiers and members of the groups. This may be
illustrated by the hyponymic structure represented below.
Another way to describe hyponymy is in terms of genus and d i f -
f e r e n t i a .
The more specific term is called t h e h y p o n y m of the more
general, and the more general is called t h e h y p e r o n y m or the
classifier.
It is noteworthy that the principle of such hierarchical classification is
widely used by scientists in various fields of research: botany, geology,
etc. Hyponymic classification may be viewed as objectively reflecting the
structure of vocabulary and is considered by many linguists as one of the
most important principles for the description of meaning.
A general problem with this principle of classification (just as with
lexico-semantic group criterion) is that there often exist overlapping clas-
sifications. For example,
persons
may be divided into
adults
(man,
woman, husband, etc.) and
children
(boy, girl, lad, etc.) but also into
na-
tional groups
(American, Russian, Chinese, etc.),
professional groups
(teacher, butcher, baker, etc.),
social
and
economic groups,
and so on.
Another problem of great importance for linguists is the dependence of
the hierarchical structures of lexical units not only on the structure of the
corresponding group of referents in real world but also on the structure of
vocabulary in this or that language.
This can be easily observed when we compare analogous groups in
different languages. Thus, e.g., in English we may speak of the lexico-
semantic group of meals which includes:
breakfast, lunch, dinner, sup-
per,
54
snack,
etc. The word
meal
is the classifier whereas in Russian we have
no
word for meals in general and consequently no classifier though we have
several words for different kinds of meals.
Lexical units may also be classified by the
criterion of semantic similarity and semantic
contrasts. The terms generally used to denote
these two types of semantic relatedness are s y n o n y m y and a n -
t o n y m y .
S y n o n y m y is often understood as semantic equivalence. Seman-
tic equivalence however can exist between words and word-groups, word-
groups and sentences, sentences and sentences. For example,
John is
taller than Bill
is semantically equivalent to
Bill is shorter than John.
John sold the book to Bill
and
Bill bought the book from John
may be con-
sidered semantically equivalent.
As can be seen from the above these sentences are paraphrases and de-
note the same event. Semantic equivalence may be observed on the level
of word-groups, Thus we may say that
to win a victory
is synonymous
with
to gain a victory,
etc.
Here we proceed from the assumption that the terms synonymy and
synonyms should be confined to semantic relation between words only.
Similar relations between word-groups and sentences are described as se-
mantic equivalence.
1
Synonyms may be found in different parts of speech
and both among notional and function words. For example,
though
and
albeit, on
and
upon, since
and
as
are synonymous because these phone-
mically different words are similar in their denotational meaning.
Synonyms are traditionally described as words different in sound-form
but identical or similar in meaning. This definition has been severely criti-
cised on many points. Firstly, it seems impossible to speak of identical or
similar meaning of w o r d s as s u c h as this part of the definition can-
not be applied to polysemantic words. It is inconceivable that polyseman-
tic words could be synonymous in all their meanings. The verb look, e.g.,
is usually treated as a synonym of
see, watch, observe,
etc., but in another
of its meanings it is not synonymous with this group of words but rather
with the verbs
seem, appear (cf. to look at smb
and
to look pale).
The
number of synonymic sets of a polysemantic word tends as a rule to be
equal to the number of individual meanings the word possesses.
In the discussion of polysemy and context
2
we have seen that one of
the ways of discriminating between different meanings of a word is the
interpretation of these meanings in terms of their synonyms, e.g. the two
meanings of the adjective
handsome
are synonymously interpreted as
handsome
— ‘beautiful’ (usually about men) and
handsome — ‘
consid-
erable, ample’ (about sums, sizes, etc.).
Secondly, it seems impossible to speak of identity or similarity of
l e x i c a l m e a n i n g a s a w h о l e as it is only the denotational
component that may be described as identical or similar. If we analyse
1
See also ‘Methods . . . ’ , § 5, p. 214.
2
See ‘Semasiology’, §§ 40-42, p. 47-50.
55
§ 47. Semantic Equivalence
and Synonymy