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find homonymous forms of the Possessive Case Singular and the Com-
mon Case Plural, e.g. brother’s ['
br0Dqz
] —
brothers
['
br0Dqz
]. It may be
easily observed that g r a m m a t i c a l h o m o n y m y is the ho-
monymy of different word-forms of one and the same word.
The two classifications: f u l l and p a r t i a l h o m o n y m y and
l e x i c a l ,
l e x i c o - g r a m m a t i c a l
and
g r a m m a t i c a l
h o m o n y m y are not mutually exclusive. All homonyms may be de-
scribed on the basis of the two criteria — homonymy of all forms of the
word or only some of the word-forms and also by the type of meaning in
which homonymous words or word-forms differ. So we speak of the full
lexical homonymy of
sea
1
n
and
seal
2
n,
of the partial lexical homonymy
of
lie
1
v
and
lie
2
v
,
and of the partial lexico-grammatical homonymy of
seal
1
n
and
seal
3
v.
It should be pointed out that in the classifica-
tion discussed above one of the groups,
namely lexico-grammatical homonymy, is
not homogeneous. This can be seen by analysing the relationship between
two pairs of lexico-grammatical homonyms, e.g.
1.
seal
1
n
— ‘a sea animal’;
seal
3
v — ‘
t o close tightly as with a seal’;
2.
seal
2
n
— ‘a piece of wax, lead’;
seal
3
v
— ‘toclose tightly as with a
seal’.
We can see that
seal
1
n
and
seal
3
v
actually differ in both grammatical
and lexical meanings. We cannot establish any semantic connection be-
tween the meaning ‘a sea animal’ and ‘to close tightly’. The lexical mean-
ings of
seal
2
n
and
seal
3
v
are apprehended by speakers as closely related.
The noun and the verb both denote something connected with “a piece of
wax, lead, etc., a stamp by means of which a design is printed on paper
and paper envelopes are tightly closed". Consequently the pair
seal
2
n
—
seal
3
v
does not answer the description of homonyms as words or word-
forms that sound alike but differ in lexical meaning. This is true of a
number of other cases of lexico-grammatical homonymy, e.g.
work
n
—
(
to
)
work
v;
paper
n —
(to) paper
v;
love
n
—
(to) love
v
and so on. As
a matter of fact all homonyms arising from conversion have related mean-
ings. As a rule however the whole of the semantic structure of such words
is not identical. The noun
paper,
e.g., has at least five meanings (1. mate-
rial in the form of sheets, 2. a newspaper, 3. a document, 4. an essay, 5. a
set of printed examination questions) whereas the verb
(to) paper
pos-
sesses but one meaning ‘to cover with wallpaper’.
Considering this peculiarity of lexico-grammatical homonyms we may
subdivide them into two groups: A. identical in sound-form but different
in their grammatical and lexical meanings (s
eal
1
n
—
seal
3
v),
and B. iden-
tical in sound-form but different in their grammatical meanings and
p a r t l y different in their lexical meaning, i.e. partly different in their
semantic structure
(seal
3
n
—
seal
3
v
;
paper
n
— (to) paper
v).
Thus the
definition of homonyms as words possessing identical sound-form but
different semantic structure seems to be more exact as it allows of a better
understanding of complex cases of homonymy, e.g.
seal
1
n
—
seal
2
n;
seal
3
v
—
seal
4
v
which can be analysed into homonymic pairs, e.g.
seal
1
n
—
seal
2
n
lexical homonyms;
seal
1
n
—
seal
3
v
— lexico-
41
§ 34. Some Peculiarities of
Lexico-Grammatical Homonymy
grammatical homonyms, subgroup A;
seal
2
n
— seal
3
v
— lexico-
grammatical homonyms, subgroup B.
In the discussion of the problem of homonymy
we proceeded from the assumption that words
are two-facet units possessing both sound-
form and meaning, and we deliberately disregarded their graphic form.
Some linguists, however, argue that the graphic form of words in Modern
English is just as important as their sound-form and should be taken into
consideration in the analysis and classification ■ of homonyms. Conse-
quently they proceed from definition of homonyms as words identical in
sound-form or spelling but different in meaning. It follows that in their
classification of homonyms all the three aspects: sound-form, graphic form
and meaning are taken into account. Accordingly they classify homonyms
into h o m o g r a p h s , h o m o p h o n e s and p e r f e c t h o m o -
n y m s .
H o m o g r a p h s are words identical in spelling, but different both
in their sound-form and meaning, e.g.
bow
n
[bou] — ‘a piece of wood
curved by a string and used for shooting arrows’ and
bow
n
[bau] — ‘the
bending of the head or body’;
tear
n
[tia] — ‘a drop of water that comes
from the eye’ and
tear
v
[tea] — ‘to pull apart by force’.
H o m o p h o n e s are words identical in sound-form but different
both in spelling and in meaning, e.g.
sea
n
and
see
v;
son
n
and
sun
n.
P e r f e c t h o m o n y m s are words identical both in spelling and
in sound-form but different in meaning, e.g.
case
1
n
— ’something that
has happened’ and
case
2
n
— ‘a box, a container’.
The description of various types of homonyms
in Modern English would be incomplete if we
did not give a brief outline of the diachronic processes that account for
their appearance.
The two main sources of homonymy are: 1) diverging meaning devel-
opment of a polysemantic word, and 2) converging sound development of
two or more different words. The process of d i v e r g i n g m e a n -
i n g d e v e l o p m e n t can be observed when different meanings of
the same word move so far away from each other that they come to be re-
garded as two separate units. This happened, for example, in the case of
Modern English
flower
and
flour
which originally were one word
(ME.
flour,
cf.
OFr.
flour, flor,
L.
flos — florem)
meaning ‘the flower’ and
‘the finest part of wheat’. The difference in spelling underlines the fact
that from the synchronic point of view they are two distinct words even
though historically they have a common origin.
C o n v e r g e n t s o u n d d e v e l o p m e n t is the most potent
factor in the creation of homonyms. The great majority of homonyms arise
as a result of converging sound development which leads to the coinci-
dence of two or more words which were phonetically distinct at an earlier
date. For example,
OE.
ic and
OE.
еаzе have become identical in pronun-
ciation
(MnE.
I [ai] and
eye
[ai]). A number of lexico-grammatical homo-
nyms appeared as a result of convergent sound development of the verb
and the noun (cf.
MnE.
love — (to) love
and
OE.
lufu — lufian).
42
§ 35. Graphic and Sound-Form
of Homonyms
§ 36. Sources of Homonymy
Words borrowed from other languages may through phonetic conver-
gence become homonymous.
ON.
ras
and
Fr.
race are homonymous in
Modern English (cf.
race
1
[
reis] — ‘running’ and
race
2
[
reis] — ‘a dis-
tinct ethnical stock’).
One of the most debatable problems in sema-
siology is the demarcation line between ho-
monymy and polysemy, i.e. between differ-
ent meanings of one word and the meanings of two homonymous words.
If homonymy is viewed diachronically then all cases of sound conver-
gence of two or more words may be safely regarded as cases of ho-
monymy, as, e.g.,
race
1
and
race
2
can be traced back to two etymologi-
cally different words. The cases of semantic divergence, however, are
more doubtful. The transition from polysemy to homonymy is a gradual
process, so it is hardly possible to point out the precise stage at which di-
vergent semantic development tears asunder all ties between the meanings
and results in the appearance of two separate words. In the case of
flower,
flour,
e.g., it is mainly the resultant divergence of graphic forms that gives
us grounds to assert that the two meanings which originally made up the
semantic structure of о n e word are now apprehended as belonging to
t w o different words.
S y n c h r o n i c a l l y the differentiation between homonymy and
polysemy is as a rule wholly based on the semantic criterion. It is usually
held that if a connection between the various meanings is apprehended by
the speaker, these are to be considered as making up the semantic struc-
ture of a polysemantic word, otherwise it is a case of homonymy, not
polysemy.
Thus the semantic criterion implies that the difference between
polysemy and homonymy is actually reduced to the differentiation be-
tween related and unrelated meanings. This traditional semantic criterion
does not seem to be reliable, firstly, because various meanings of the same
word and the meanings of two or more different words may be equally
apprehended by the speaker as synchronically unrelated. For instance, the
meaning ‘a change in the form of a noun or pronoun’ which is usually
listed in dictionaries as one of the meanings of
case
1
seems to be syn-
chronically just as unrelated to the meanings of this word as ’something
that has happened’, or ‘a question decided in the court of law’ to the
meaning of
case
2
— ‘a
box, a container’, etc.
Secondly, in the discussion of lexico-grammatical homonymy it was
pointed out that some of the meanings of homonyms arising from conver-
sion (e.g.
seal
2
n
— seal
3
v
;
paper
n
— paper
v)
are related, so this crite-
rion cannot be applied to a large group of homonymous word-forms in
Modern English. This criterion proves insufficient in the synchronic
analysis of a number of other borderline cases, e.g.
brother — brothers
— ’sons of the same parent’ and
brethren
— ‘fellow members of a reli-
gious society’. The meanings may be apprehended as related and then we
can speak of polysemy pointing out that the difference in the morphologi-
cal structure of the plural form reflects the difference of meaning. Other-
wise we may regard this as a case of partial lexical homonymy.
43
§ 37. Polysemy and Homonymy:
Etymological and Semantic
Criteria
It is sometimes argued that the difference between related and unre-
lated meanings may be observed in the manner in which the meanings of
polysemantic words are as a rule relatable. It is observed that different
meanings of one word have certain stable relationship which are not to be
found ‘between the meanings of two homonymous words. A clearly per-
ceptible connection, e.g., can be seen in all metaphoric or metonymic
meanings of one word (cf., e.g.,
foot
of
the
man
— foot
of the mountain,
loud
voice —
loud
colours, etc.,
1
cf. also
deep
well and
deep
knowledge,
etc.).
Such semantic relationships are commonly found in the meanings of
one word and are considered to be indicative of polysemy. It is also sug-
gested that the semantic connection may be described in terms of such fea-
tures as, e.g., form and function (cf.
horn
of an animal and
horn
as an in-
strument), or process and result (to
run
— ‘move with quick steps’ and a
run
— act of running).
Similar relationships, however, are observed between the meanings of
two partially homonymic words, e.g. to
run
and a
run
in the stocking.
Moreover in the synchronic analysis of polysemantic words we often
find meanings that cannot be related in any way, as, e.g. the meanings of
the word
case
discussed above. Thus the semantic criterion proves not
only untenable in theory but also rather vague and because of this impos-
sible in practice as in many cases it cannot be used to discriminate be-
tween several meanings of one word and the meanings of two different
words.
The criterion of distribution suggested by
some linguists is undoubtedly helpful, but
mainly in cases of lexico-grammatical and grammatical homonymy. For
example, in the homonymic pair
paper « — (to) paper
v
the noun may be
preceded by the article and followed by a verb;
(to) paper
can never be
found in identical distribution. This formal criterion can be used to dis-
criminate not only lexico-grammatical but also grammatical homonyms,
but it often fails in cases of lexical homonymy, not differentiated by means
of spelling.
Homonyms differing in graphic form, e.g. such lexical homonyms as
knight — night
or
flower — flour,
are easily perceived to be two differ-
ent lexical units as any formal difference of words is felt as indicative of
the existence of two separate lexical units. Conversely lexical homonyms
identical both in pronunciation and spelling are often apprehended as dif-
ferent meanings of one word.
It is often argued that in general the context in which the words are
used suffices to establish the borderline between homonymous words, e.g.
the meaning of
case
1
in
several cases of robbery
can be easily differenti-
ated from the meaning of
case
2
in a
jewel case, a glass case.
This however
is true of different meanings of the same word as recorded in dictionaries,
e.g. of case, as can be seen by comparing
the case will be tried in the
law-court
and t h e p o s s e s s i v e c a s e of t h e noun.
1
See ‘Semasiology’, § 23, p. 31. 44
§ 38. Formal Crite-
ria: Distribution and
Thus, the context serves to differentiate meanings but is of little help in
distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy. Consequently we have
to admit that no formal means have as yet been found to differentiate be-
tween several meanings of one word and the meanings of its homonyms.
In the discussion of the problems of polysemy and homonymy we pro-
ceeded from the assumption that the word is the basic unit of language.
1
Some linguists hold that the basic and elementary units at the semantic
level of language are the lexico-semantic variants of the word, i.e. indi-
vidual word-meanings. In that case, naturally, we can speak only of ho-
monymy of individual lexico-semantic variants, as polysemy is by defini-
tion, at least on the synchronic plane, the coexistence of several meanings
in the semantic structure of the word.
1. Homonyms are words that sound alike but
have different semantic structure. The prob-
lem of homonymy is mainly the problem of
differentiation between two different semantic structures of identically
sounding words.
2.
Homonymy of words and homonymy of individual word-forms
may be regarded as full and p a r t i a l homonymy. Cases of f u l l
hom o n y m y are generally observed in words belonging to the same
part of speech. P a r t i a l h o m o n y m y is usually to be found in
word-forms of different parts of speech.
3.
Homonymous words and word-forms may be classified by the type
of meaning that serves to differentiate between identical sound-forms.
L e x i c a l h o m o n y m s differ in lexical meaning, l e x i c o -
g r a m m a t i c a l in both lexical and grammatical meanings,
whereas g r a m m a t i c a l h o m o n y m s are those that differ in
grammatical meaning only.
L e x i c o - g r a m m a t i c a l h o m o n y m s are not homo-
geneous. Homonyms arising from conversion have some related lexical
meanings in their semantic structure. Though some individual meanings
may be related the whole of the semantic structure of homonyms is essen-
tially different.
5.
If the graphic form of homonyms is taken into account, they are
classified on the basis of the three aspects — sound-form, graphic form
and meaning — into three big groups: h o m o g r a p h s (identical
graphic form), h o m o p h o n e s ‘ (identical sound-form) and p e r -
f e c t h o m o n y m s (identical sound-form and graphic form).
6.
The two main sources of homonymy are: 1) diverging meaning de-
velopment of a polysemantic word, and 2) convergent sound development
of two or more different words. The latter is the most potent factor in the
creation of homonyms.
7. The most debatable problem of homonymy is the demarcation line
“between homonymy and polysemy, i.e. between different meanings of
one word and the meanings of two or more phonemically different words.
1
See ‘Introduction’, § 2.
45
§ 39. Summary
and Conclusions