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meaning but also in sound-form. There are cases, however, when the
sound-form of root-morphemes may be different, as for example in
sun,
sunny, solar; mouth, oral, orally; brother, brotherly, fraternal,
etc.;
their semantic similarity however, makes it possible to include them in a
word-family. In such cases it is usual to speak of lexical suppletion, i.e.
formation of related words of a word-family from phonemically different
roots. As a rule in the word-families of this type we are likely to encounter
etymologically different words, e.g. the words
brother
and
mouth
are of
Germanic origin, whereas
fraternal
and
oral
can be easily traced back to
Latin. We frequently find synonymic pairs of the type
fatherly— pater-
nal, brotherly—fraternal.
Semantic and phonemic identity of affixational morphemes can be ob-
served in the lexical groups of the type
darkness, cleverness, calmness,
etc.;
teacher, reader, writer,
etc. In such word-groups as, e.g.
teacher,
musician,
etc., only semantic similarity of derivational affixes is observed.
As derivational affixes impart to the words a certain generalised meaning,
we may single out lexical groups denoting the agent, the doer of the action
(Nomina Agenti)—
teacher, reader,
etc. or lexical groups denoting actions
(Nomina Acti)—
movement, transformation,
etc. and others.
1. Paradigmatic (or selectional) and syntag-
matic (or combinatory) axes of linguistic
structure represent the way vocabulary is or-
ganised.
Syntagmatic relations define the word-meaning in the flow of speech
in various contexts.
Paradigmatic relations define the word-meaning through its interrela-
tion with other members within one of the subgroups of vocabulary units.
2.
On the syntagmatic axis the word-meaning is dependent on different
types of contexts. Linguistic context is the minimal stretch of speech nec-
essary to determine individual meanings.
3.
Linguistic (verbal) contexts comprise lexical and grammatical con-
texts and are opposed to extra-linguistic (non-verbal) contexts. In extra-
linguistic contexts the meaning of the word is determined not only by lin-
guistic factors but also by the actual speech situation in which the word is
used.
4.
The semantic structure of polysemantic words is not homogeneous
as far as the status of individual meanings is concerned. A certain meaning
(or meanings) is representative of the word taken in isolation, others are
perceived only in various contexts.
5.
Classification of vocabulary into thematic groups is based on com-
mon contextual associations. Contextual associations are formed as a result
of regular co-occurrence of words in similar, repeatedly used contexts
within the framework of sentences.
6.
The main criterion underlying semantic classification of vocabulary
items on the paradigmatic axis is the type of meaning relationship between
words.
The criterion of common concept serves to classify words into seman-
tic fields and lexico-semantic groups.
62
§ 52. Summary
and Conclusions
Semantic relationship of inclusion is the main feature of hyponymic
hierarchical structure Semantic similarity and semantic contrast is the type
of relationship which underlies the classification of lexical items into syn-
onymic and antonymic series.
7.
Synonymy and antonymy are correlative and sometimes overlap-
ping notions. Synonymous relationship of the denotational meaning is in
many cases combined with the difference in the connotational (mainly
stylistic) component.
8.
It is suggested that the term s y n o n y m s should be used to de-
scribe words different in sound-form but similar in their denotational
meaning (or meanings) and interchangeable at least in some contexts.
The term a n t о n у m s is to be applied to words different in sound-
form characterised by different types of semantic contrast of the denota-
tional meaning and interchangeable at least in some contexts.
111. Word-Groups and Phraseological Units
Words put together to form lexical units make phrases or word-groups.
It will be recalled that lexicology deals with words, word-forming mor-
phemes and word-groups. We assume that the word is the basic lexical
unit.
1
The smallest two-facet unit to be found within the word is the mor-
pheme which is studied on the morphological level of analysis. The largest
two-facet lexical unit comprising more than one word is the word-group
observed on the syntagmatic level of analysis of the various ways words
are joined together to make up single self-contained lexical units.
The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of word-groups may
vary. Some word-groups, e.g.
at least, point of view,
by
means of, take
place,
seem to be functionally and semantically inseparable. Such word-
groups are usually described as set-phrases, word-equivalents or phrase-
ological units and are traditionally regarded as the subject matter of the
branch of lexicological science that studies phraseology.
The component members in other word-groups, e.g.
a week ago, man
of wisdom, take lessons, kind to people,
seem to possess greater seman-
tic and structural independence. Word-groups of this type are defined as
free or variable word-groups or phrases and are habitually studied in syn-
tax.
Here, however, we proceed from the assumption that before touching
on the problem of phraseology it is essential to briefly outline the features
common to various types of word-groups viewed as self-contained lexical
units irrespective of the degree of structural and semantic cohesion of the
component words.
SOME BASIC FEATURES OF WORD-GROUPS
To get a better insight into the essentials of structure and meaning of
word-groups we must begin with a brief survey of the main factors active
in uniting words into word-groups. The two main linguistic factors to be
considered in this connection are the lexical and the grammatical valency
of words.
It is an indisputable fact that words are used
in certain lexical contexts, i.e. in combination
with other words.
2
The noun
question,
e.g.,
is often combined with such adjectives as
vital, pressing, urgent, disput-
able, delicate,
etc. This noun is a component of a number of other word-
groups, e.g.
to raise a question, a question of great importance, a ques-
tion of the agenda, of the day,
and many others. The aptness of a word to
appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or col-
locability.
1
See ‘Introduction’, §§ 4, 5.
2
See ‘Semasiology’, §41, p. 48.
64
§ 1. Lexical
Valency
The range of the lexical valency of words is linguistically restricted by
the inner structure of the English word-stock. This can be easily observed
in the selection of synonyms found in different word-groups. Though the
verbs
lift
and
raise,
e.g., are usually treated as synonyms, it is only the
latter that is collocated with the noun
question.
The verb
take
may be
synonymically interpreted as ‘grasp’, ’seize’, ‘catch’, ‘lay hold of, etc. but
it is only
take
that is found in collocation with the nouns
examination,
measures, precautions,
etc., only
catch
in
catch smb. napping
and
grasp
in
grasp the truth.
There is a certain norm of lexical valency for each word and any depar-
ture from this norm is felt as a literary or rather a stylistic device. Such
word-groups as for example
a cigarette ago, shove a question
and the
like are illustrative of the point under discussion. It is because we recog-
nise that
shove
and
question
are not normally collocable that the junction
of them can be effective.
Words habitually collocated in speech tend to constitute a cliché. We
observe, for example, that the verb
put forward
and the noun
question
are habitually collocated and whenever we hear the verb
put forward
or
see it written on paper it is natural that we should anticipate the word
question.
So we may conclude that
put forward a question
constitutes a
habitual word-group, a kind of cliché. This is also true of a number of
other word-groups, e.g.
to win (or gain) a victory, keen sight (or hear-
ing).
Some linguists hold that most of the English in ordinary use is thor-
oughly saturated with cliches.
1
The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not
identical. Both the English word
flower
and its Russian counterpart —
цветок,
for example, may be combined with a number of other words all
of which denote the place where the flowers are grown, e.g.
garden flow-
ers, hot-house flowers,
etc. (cf. the Russian
садовые цветы, оранже-
рейные цветы,
etc.). The English word, however, cannot enter into com-
bination with the word
room
to denote flowers growing in the rooms (cf.
pot flowers
—
комнатные цветы).
One more point of importance should be discussed in connection with
the problem of lexical valency — the interrelation of lexical valency and
polysemy as found in word-groups.
Firstly, the restrictions of lexical valency of words may manifest them-
selves in the lexical meanings of the polysemantic members of word-
groups. The adjective
heavy,
e.g., is combined with the words
food,
meals, supper,
etc. in the meaning ‘rich and difficult to digest’. But not all
the words with more or less the same component of meaning can be com-
bined with this adjective. One cannot say, for instance,
heavy cheese
or
heavy sausage
implying that the cheese or the sausage is difficult to di-
gest."
Secondly, it is observed that different meanings of a word may be de-
scribed through the possible types of lexical contexts, i.e. through the
1
See, e. g.,
R. Quirk,
op. cit., p. 206. ‘It is self-evident that clichés are of great impor-
tance in practical language learning as speech is not so much the mastery of vocabulary as
such, but acquisition of a set of speech habits in using word-groups in general and clichés
in particular.
’
65
lexical valency of the word, for example, the different meanings of the ad-
jective
heavy
may be described through the word-groups
heavy weight
(book, table,
etc.),
heavy snow (storm, rain,
etc.),
heavy drinker (eater,
etc.), heavy sleep (disappointment, sorrow,
etc.),
heavy industry (tanks,
etc.), and so on.
From this point of view word-groups may be regarded as the character-
istic minimal lexical sets that operate as distinguishing clues for each of
the multiple meanings of the word.
Words are used also in grammatical contexts.
1
The minimal grammatical context in which
words are used when brought together to form word-groups is usually de-
scribed as the pattern of the word-group. For instance, the adjective
heavy
discussed above can be followed by a noun (e.g. heavy
storm
or by the
infinitive of a verb (e.g.
heavy to lift),
etc. The aptness of a word to appear
in specific grammatical (or rather syntactic) structures is termed
g r a m m a t i c a l v a l e n c y .
The grammatical valency of words may be different. To begin with, the
range of grammatical valency is delimited by the part of speech the word
belongs to. It follows that the grammatical valency of each individual
word is dependent on the grammatical structure of the language.
This is not to imply that grammatical valency of words belonging to
the same part of speech is necessarily identical. This can be best illustrated
by comparing the grammatical valency of any two words belonging to the
same part of speech, e.g. of the two synonymous verbs
suggest
and
pro-
pose.
Both verbs can be followed by a noun
(to propose
or
suggest a
plan, a resolution).
It is only
propose,
however, that can be followed by
the infinitive of a verb
(to propose to do smth.);
The adjectives
clever
and
intelligent
are seen to possess different grammatical valency as
clever
can be used in word-groups having the pattern:
Adjective-Preposition
at+Noun
(clever at mathematics),
whereas
intelligent
can never be found
in exactly the same word-group pattern.
Specific linguistic restrictions in the range of grammatical valency of
individual words imposed on the lexical units by the inner structure of the
language are also observed by comparing the grammatical valency of corre-
lated words in different languages. The English verb
influence,
for exam-
ple, can be followed only by a noun
(to
influence a person, a decision,
choice,
etc.). The grammatical valency of its Russian counterpart
влиять
is
different. The Russian verb can be combined only with a prepositional
group (cf.
влиять
на
человека,
на
выбор,
. . ., etc.).
No departure from the norm of grammatical valency is possible as this
can make the word-group unintelligible to English speakers. Thus e.g. the
word-group
mathematics at clever
is likely to be felt as a meaningless
string of words because the grammatical valency of English nouns does
not allow of the structure
Noun+at+Adjective.
It should also be pointed out that the individual meanings of a polyse-
mantic word may be described through its grammatical valency. Thus,
different meanings of the adjective
keen
may be described in a general
1
See ‘Semasiology’, § 42, p. 49. 66
§ 2. Grammatical Valency