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ing of the groups is deducible from the meaning of their components. The
nominal groups, e.g.
red flower, heavy weight
and the verbal group, e.g.
take
lessons, are from this point of view motivated, whereas structurally
identical word-groups
red tape — ‘
official bureaucratic methods’,
heavy
father
— ’serious or solemn part in a theatrical play’, and
take place —
‘
occur’ are l e x i c a l l y n o n - m o t i v a t e d . In these groups the
constituents do not possess, at least synchronically, the denotational mean-
ing found in the same words outside these groups or, to be more exact, do
not possess any individual lexical meaning of their own, as the word-
groups under discussion seem to represent single indivisible semantic enti-
ties. Word-groups are said to be s t r u c t u r a l l y m o t i v a t e d if the
meaning of the pattern is deducible from the order and arrangement of the
member-words of the group.
Red flower,
e.g., is motivated as the meaning
of the pattern
quality
—
substance
can be deduced from the order and ar-
rangement of the words
red
and
flower,
whereas the seemingly identical
pattern
red tape
cannot be interpreted as
quality
—
substance.
The degree of motivation may be different. Between the extremes of
complete motivation and lack of motivation there are innumerable inter-
mediate cases. For example, the degree of lexical motivation in the nomi-
nal group
black market
is higher than in
black death, “
but lower than in
black dress,
though none of the groups can be considered as completely
non-motivated. This is also true of other word-groups, e.g.
old
man and
old boy
both of which may be regarded as lexically and structurally moti-
vated though the degree of motivation in
old man
is noticeably higher. It
is of interest to note that completely motivated word-groups are, as a rule,
correlated with certain structural types of compound words. Verbal groups
having the structure
V+N,
e.g.
to
read books, to love music,
etc., are ha-
bitually correlated with the compounds of the pattern
N+(V+
er
)
(book-
reader, music-lover);
adjectival groups such as
A
+
+prp+N
(e.g.
rich in
oil, shy before girls)
are correlated with the compounds of the pattern
N+A,
e.g.
oil-rich, girl-shy.
It should also be noted that seemingly identical word-groups are some-
times found to be motivated or non-motivated depending on their semantic
interpretation. Thus
apple sauce,
e.g., is lexically and structurally moti-
vated when it means ‘a sauce made of apples’ but when used to denote
‘nonsense’ it is clearly non-motivated. In such cases we may even speak of
homonymy of word-groups and not of polysemy.
It follows from the above discussion that word-groups may be also
classified into motivated and non-motivated units. Non-motivated word-
groups are habitually described as p h r a s e o l o g i c a l u n i t s or
i d i o m s .
1. Words put together to form lexical units
make up phrases or word-groups. The main fac-
tors active in bringing words together are lexical and grammatical valency
of the components of word-groups.
2. Lexical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in various collo-
cations. All the words of the language possess a certain norm of lexical
valency. Restrictions of lexical valency are to be accounted for by the in-
ner structure of the vocabulary of the English language.
72
§ 10. Summary and Conclusions
3.
Lexical valency of polysemantic words is observed in various collo-
cations in which these words are used. Different meanings of a polyseman-
tic word may be described through its lexical valency.
4.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in various
grammatical structures. All words possess a certain norm of grammatical
valency. Restrictions of grammatical valency are to be accounted for by
the grammatical structure of the language. The range of grammatical
valency of each individual word is essentially delimited by the part of
speech the word belongs to and also by the specific norm of grammatical
valency peculiar to individual words of Modern English.
5.
The grammatical valency of a polysemantic word may be observed
in the different structures in which the word is used. Individual meanings
of a polysemantic word may be described through its grammatical valency.
6.
Structurally, word-groups may be classified by the criterion of dis-
tribution into endocentric and exocentric.
Endocentric word-groups can be classified according to the head-word
into nominal, adjectival, verbal and adverbial groups or phrases.
7. Semantically all word-groups may be classified into motivated and
non-motivated. Non-motivated word-groups are usually described as phra-
seological units.
PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
It has been repeatedly pointed out that word-groups viewed as func-
tionally and semantically inseparable units are traditionally regarded as the
subject matter of phraseology. It should be noted, however, that no proper
scientific investigation of English phraseology has been attempted until
quite recently. English and American linguists as a rule confine themselves
to collecting various words, word-groups and sentences presenting some
interest either from the point of view of origin, style, usage, or some other
feature peculiar to them. These units are habitually described as i d i o m s
but no attempt has been made to investigate these idioms as a separate
class of linguistic units or a specific class of word-groups.
American and English dictionaries of unconventional English, slang
and idioms and other highly valuable reference-books contain a wealth of
proverbs, sayings, various lexical units of all kinds, but as a rule do not
seek to lay down a reliable criterion to distinguish between variable word-
groups and phraseological units. Paradoxical as it may seem the first dic-
tionary in which theoretical principles for the selection of English phrase-
ological units were elaborated was published in our country.
1
1
It should be recalled that the first attempt to place the study of various word-groups
on a scientific basis was made by the outstanding Russian linguist A. A. Shakhmatov in his
world-famous book Syntax. Shakhmatov’s work was continued by Academician V. V.
Vinogradov whose approach to phraseology is discussed below. Investigation of English
phraseology was initiated in our country by prof. A. V. Kunin (A. В.
Kyнин.
Англо-
русский фразеологический словарь. М., 1955). See also
A. V. Kunin.
English Idioms. 3d
ed. M., 1967.
73
The term itself p h r a s e o l o g i c a l u n i t s to denote a specific
group of phrases was introduced by Soviet linguists and is generally ac-
cepted in our country.
Attempts have been made to approach the
problem of phraseology in different ways. Up
t i l l now, however, there is a certain diver-
gence of opinion as to the essential feature of
phraseological units as distinguished from other word-groups and the na-
ture of phrases that can be properly termed p h r a s e o l o g i c a l
u n i t s .
The complexity of the problem may be largely accounted for by the
fact that the border-line between free or variable word-groups and phrase-
ological units is not clearly defined. The so-called free word-groups are
only relatively free as collocability of their member-words is fundamen-
tally delimited by their lexical and grammatical valency which makes at
least some of them very close to set-phrases. Phraseological units are
comparatively stable and semantically inseparable. Between the extremes
of complete motivation and variability of member-words on the one hand
and lack of motivation combined with complete stability of the lexical
components and grammatical structure on the other hand there are innu-
merable border-line ca’ses.
• However, the existing terms,
1
e.g. set-phrases, idioms, word-
equivalents, reflect to a certain extent the main debatable issues of phrase-
ology which centre on the divergent views concerning the nature and es-
sential features of phraseological units as distinguished from the so-called
free word-groups. The term s e t - p h r a s e implies that the basic crite-
rion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammati-
cal structure of word-groups. The term i d i o m s generally implies that
the essential feature of the linguistic units under consideration is idio-
maticity or lack cf motivation. This term habitually used by English and
American linguists is very often treated as synonymous with the term
p h r a s e o l o g i c a l u n i t universally accepted in our country.
2
The term w o r d - e q u i v a l e n t stresses not only the semantic but
also the functional inseparability of certain word-groups and their aptness
to function in speech as single words.
Thus differences in terminology reflect certain differences in the main
criteria used to distinguish between free word-groups and a specific type
of linguistic units generally known as phraseology. These criteria and the
ensuing classification are briefly discussed below.
Phraseological units are habitually defined as
non-motivated word-groups that cannot be
freely made up in speech but are reproduced
as ready-made units. This definition proceeds from the assumption that the
essential features of
1
Cf., e. g., the interpretation of these terms in the textbooks on lexicology by I. V. Arnold, A. I.
Smirnitsky and in A. V. Kunin’s Англо-русский фразеологический словарь. М., 1967.
2
For a different interpretation of the term i d i o m see:
А. И. Смирницкий.
Лексикология
английского языка. М., 1956,
74
§ 1 1 . Free Word-Groups
Versus Set-Phrases.
Phraseological Units, Idioms,
Word-Equivalents
§ 12. Criteria of Stability
and Lack of Motivation
(Idiomaticity)
phraseological units are stability of the lexical components and lack of
motivation.
1
It is consequently assumed that unlike components of free
word-groups which may vary according to the needs of communication,
member-words of phraseological units are always reproduced as single
unchangeable collocations.
Thus, for example, the constituent
red
in the free word-group
red
flower
may, if necessary, be substituted for by any other adjective denot-
ing colour
(blue, white,
etc.), without essentially changing the denota-
tional meaning of the word-group under discussion (a flower of a certain
colour). In the phraseological unit
red tape
(bureaucratic “methods) no
such substitution is possible, as a change of the adjective would involve a
complete change in the meaning of the whole group. A
blue (black,
white,
etc.)
tape
would mean ‘a tape of a certain colour’. It follows that
the phraseological unit
red tape
is semantically non-motivated, i.e. its
meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of its components and that
it exists as a ready-made linguistic unit which does not allow of any vari-
ability of its lexical components.
It is also argued that non-variability of the phraseological unit is not
confined to its lexical components. Grammatical structure of phraseologi-
cal units is to a certain extent also stable. Thus, though the structural for-
mula of the word-groups
red flower
and
red tape
is identical (
A
+
+N),
the noun flower may be used in the plural
(red flowers),
whereas no such
change is possible in the phraseological unit
red tape; red tapes
would
then denote ‘tapes of red colour’ but not ‘bureaucratic methods’. This is
also true of other types of phraseological units, e.g.
what will Mrs.
Grundy
say?, where the verbal component is invariably reproduced in the
same grammatical form.
Taking into account mainly the degree of
idiomaticity phraseological units may be
classified into three big groups: p h r a s e o l o g i c a l f u s i o n s ,
p h r a s e o l o g i c a l u n i t i e s and p h r a s e o l o g i c a l c o l l o c a -
t i o n s .
2
P h r a s e o l o g i c a l f u s i o n s are completely non-motivated
word-groups, such as
red
tape — ‘bureaucratic methods’;
heavy father
—
’serious or solemn part in a theatrical play’;
kick the bucket
— ‘die’;
and the like. The meaning of the components has no connections whatso-
ever, at least synchronically, with the meaning of the whole group. Idio-
maticity is, as a rule, combined with complete stability of the lexical com-
ponents and the grammatical structure of the fusion.
P h r a s e o l o g i c a l u n i t i e s are partially non-motivated as
their meaning can usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning
of the whole phraseological unit. For example,
to show one’s teeth, to
wash one’s dirty linen in public
if interpreted as semantically motivated
through the combined lexical meaning of the component words would
1
This approach to English phraseology is closely bound up with the research work
carried out in the field of Russian phraseology by Academician V. V. Vinogradov. See
Русский язык. Грамматическое учение о слове. Учпедгиз. Л., 1947.
2
This classification was suggested by Academician V. V. Vinogradov.
75
§ 13. Classification
naturally lead one to understand these in their literal meaning. The meta-
phoric meaning of the whole unit, however, readily suggests ‘take a threat-
ening tone’ or ’show an intention to injure’ for
show one’s teeth
and ‘dis-
cuss or make public one’s quarrels’ for
wash one’s dirty linen in public.
Phraseological unities are as a rule marked by a comparatively high degree
of stability of the lexical components.
P h r a s e o l o g i c a l c o l l o c a t i o n s are motivated but
they are made up of words possessing specific lexical valency which ac-
counts for a certain degree of stability in such word-groups. In phrase-
ological collocations variability of member-words is strictly limited. For
instance,
bear a grudge
may be changed into
bear malice,
but not into
bear a fancy
or
liking. We
can say
take a liking (fancy)
but not
take ha-
tred (disgust).
These habitual collocations tend to become kind of clichés
1
where the meaning of member-words is to some extent dominated by the
meaning of the whole group. Due to this phraseological collocations are
felt as possessing a certain degree of semantic inseparability.
The current definition of phraseological units
as highly idiomatic word-groups which cannot
be freely made up in speech, but are reproduced as ready-made units has
been subject to severe criticism by linguists of different schools of
thought. The main objections and debatable points may be briefly outlined
as follows:
1.
The definition is felt to be inadequate as the concept r e a d y -
m a d e u n i t s seems to be rather vague. In fact this term can be ap-
plied to a variety of heterogeneous linguistic phenomena ranging from
word-groups to sentences (e.g. proverbs, sayings) and also quotations from
poems, novels or scientific treatises all of which can be described as ready-
made units.
2.
Frequent discussions have also led to questioning this approach to
phraseology from a purely semantic point of view as t h e c r i t e r i o n
of i d i o m a t i c i t y is found to be an inadequate guide in singling
out phraseological units from other word-groups. Borderline cases be-
tween idiomatic and non-idiomatic word-groups are so numerous and con-
fusing that the final decision seems to depend largely on one’s “feeling of
the language". This can be proved by the fact that the same word-groups
are treated by some linguists as idiomatic phrases and by others as free
word-groups. For example, such word-groups as
take the chair
— ‘pre-
side at a meeting’,
take one’s chance
— ‘trust to luck or fortune’,
take
trouble
(to do smth) — ‘to make efforts’ and others are marked in some of
the English dictionaries as idioms or phrases, whereas in others they are
found as free word-groups illustrating one of the meanings of the verb
to
take
or the nouns combined with this verb.
2
1
See ‘Word-Groups and Phraseological Units’, § 1, p. 64. Here the terms phraseological c o l -
l o c a t i o n s and h a b i t u a l c o l l o c a t i o n s are used synonymously.
2
Cf., e.g.,
The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
by A. Hornby, E. Gatenby, H. Wake-
field;
The
Universal English Dictionary
by H. Wyld and
A General Service List of English Words
with Semantic Frequencies
by M. West.
76
§ 14. Some Debatable Points