ВУЗ: Не указан
Категория: Не указан
Дисциплина: Не указана
Добавлен: 06.04.2021
Просмотров: 5010
Скачиваний: 88
The impracticability of the criterion of idiomaticity is also observed in
the traditional classification of phraseological collocations. The extreme
cases, i.e. phraseological fusions and collocations are easily differentiated
but the borderline units, as for example phraseological fusions and phrase-
ological unities or phraseological collocations and free word-groups, are
very often doubtful and rather vaguely outlined. We may argue, e.g., that
such word-groups as
high treason
or
show the white feather
are fusions
because one finds it impossible to infer the meaning of the whole from the
meaning of the individual components. Others may feel these word-groups
as metaphorically motivated and refer them to phraseological unities.
The term i d i o m a t i c i t y is also regarded by some linguists as
requiring clarification. As a matter of fact this term is habitually used to
denote lack of motivation from the point of view of one’s mother tongue.
A word-group which defies word by word translation is consequently de-
scribed as idiomatic. It follows that if idiomaticity is viewed as the main
distinguishing feature of phraseological units, the same word-groups in the
English language may be classified as idiomatic phraseological units by
Russian speakers and as non-idiomatic word-groups by those whose
mother tongue contains analogous collocations. Thus, e.g., from the point
of view of Russian speakers such word-groups as
take tea,
take care, etc.
are often referred to phraseology as the Russian translation equivalents of
these word-groups
(пить чай, заботиться)
do not contain the habitual
translation equivalents of the verb
take.
French speakers, however, are not
likely to find anything idiomatic about these word-groups as there are
similar lexical units in the French language (cf.
prendre
du thé
,
prendre
soin
). This approach to idiomaticity may
be
termed interlingual as it in-
volves a comparison, explicit or implicit of two different languages.
The term i d i o m a t i c i t y is also understood as lack of motiva-
tion from the point of view of native speakers. As here we are concerned
with the English language, this implies that only those word-groups are to
be referred to phraseology which are felt as non-motivated, at least syn-
chronically, by English speakers, e.g.
red tape, kick the bucket
and the
like. This approach to idiomaticity may be termed intralingual. In other
words the judgement as to idiomaticity is passed within’ the framework of
the language concerned, not from the outside. It is readily observed that
classification of factual linguistic material into free wort-groups and phra-
seological units largely depends upon the particular meaning we attach to
the term i d i o m a t i c i t y . It will be recalled, for example, that habitual
collocations are word-groups whose component member or members pos-
sess specific and limited lexical valency, as a rule essentially different
from the lexical valency of related words in the Russian language.
1
A
number of habitual collocations, e.g.
heavy rain, bad mistake, take care
and others, may be felt by Russian speakers as p e c u l i a r l y E n g -
l i s h and therefore idiomatic, whereas they are not perceived as such by
English speakers in whose mother tongue
1
See ‘Word-Groups and Phraseological Units’, § 1, p. 64.
the lexical valency of member words
heavy, bad, take
presupposes their
collocability with
rain, mistake, care.
3. T h e c r i t e r i o n of s t a b i l i t y is also criticised as not
very reliable in distinguishing phraseological units from other word-groups
habitually referred to as phraseology. We observe regular substitution of at
least one of the lexical components.
In to cast smth in smb’s teeth,
e.g.
the verb
cast
may be replaced by
fling; to take a decision
is found along-
side with
to make a decision; not to care a twopenny
is just one of the
possible v a r i a n t s o f t h e p h r a s e , whereas in others the noun
twopenny
may be replaced by a number of other nouns, e.g.
farthing,
button, pin, sixpence, fig,
etc.
It is also argued that stability of lexical components does not presup-
pose lack of motivation. The word-group
shrug one’s shoulders,
e.g.,
does not allow of the substitution of either
shrug
or
shoulders;
the mean-
ing of the word-group, however, is easily deducible from the meanings of
the member-words, hence the word-group is completely motivated, though
stable. Idiomatic word-groups may be variable as far as their lexical com-
ponents are concerned, or stable. It was observed that, e.g.,
to cast smth in
smb’s teeth
is a highly idiomatic but variable word-group as the constitu-
ent member
cast
may be replaced by
fling
or
throw;
the word-group
red
tape
is both highly idiomatic and stable.
It follows that stability and idiomaticity may be regarded as two differ-
ent aspects of word-groups. Stability is an essential feature of set-phrases
both motivated and non-motivated. Idiomaticity is a distinguishing feature
of phraseological units or idioms which comprise both stable set-phrases
and variable word-groups. The two features are not mutually exclusive and
may be overlapping, but are not interdependent.
Stability of word-groups may be viewed in terms of predictability of
occurrence of member-words. Thus, e.g., the verb
shrug
predicts the oc-
currence of the noun
shoulders
and the verb
clench
the occurrence of ei-
ther
fists
or
teeth.
The degree of predictability or probability of occurrence
of member-words is different in different word-groups. We may assume,
e.g., that the verb
shrug
predicts with a hundred per cent probability the
occurrence of the noun
shoulders,
as no other noun can follow this par-
ticular verb. The probability of occurrence of the noun
look
after the verb
cast
is not so high because
cast
may be followed not only by
look
but also
by
glance, light, lots
and some other nouns. Stability of the word-group in
clench one’s fists
is higher than in
cast a look,
but lower than in
shrug
one’s shoulders
as the verb
clench
predicts the occurrence of either
fists
or
teeth.
It
is argued that the stability of all word-groups may be statistically
calculated and the word-groups where stability exceeds a certain limit (say
50%) may be classified as set-phrases.
Predictability of occurrence may be calculated in relation to one or,
more than one constituent of the word-group. Thus, e.g., the degree of
probability of occurrence of the noun
bull
after the verb
take
is very low
and may practically be estimated at zero. The two member-words
take the
bull,
however, predict the occurrence of
by the horns
with a very high de-
gree of probability.
78
Stability viewed in terms of probability of occurrence seems a more re-
liable criterion in differentiating between set-phrases and variable or free
word-groups, but cannot be relied upon to single out phraseological units.
Besides, it is argued that it is practically impossible to calculate the stabil-
ity of all the word-groups as that would necessitate investigation into the
lexical valency of the whole vocabulary of the English language.
Another angle from which the problem of
phraseology is viewed is the so-called func-
tional approach. This approach assumes that phraseological units may be
defined as specify word-groups functioning as word-equivalents.
1
The fun-
damental features of phraseological units thus understood are their seman-
tic and grammatical inseparability which are regarded as distinguishing
features of isolated words.
It will be recalled that when we compare a free word-group, e.g,
heavy
weight,
and a phraseological unit, e.g.
heavy father,
we observe that in
the case of the free wordgroup each of the member-words has its own de-
notational meaning. So the lexical meaning of the word-group can be ade-
quately described as the combined lexical meaning of its constituents.
2
In
the case of the phraseological unit, however, the denotational meaning be-
longs to the word-group as a single semantically inseparable unit. The in-
dividual member-words do not seem to possess any lexical meaning out-
side the meaning of the group. The meanings of the member-words
heavy
and
father
taken in isolation are in no way connected with the meaning of
the phrase
heavy father
— ’serious or solemn part in a theatrical play’.
The same is true of the stylistic reference and emotive charge of phra-
seological units. In free word-groups each of the components preserves as
a rule its own stylistic reference. This can be readily observed in the stylis-
tic effect produced by free word-groups made up of words of widely dif-
ferent stylistic value, e.g.
to commence to scrub, valiant chap
and the
like.
A certain humorous effect is attained because one of the member-
words
(commence, valiant)
is felt as belonging to the bookish stylistic
layer, whereas the other
(scrub, chap)
is felt as stylistically neutral or col-
loquial. When we say, however, that
kick the bucket
is highly colloquial
or
heavy father
is a professional term, we do not refer to the stylistic
value of the component words of these phraseological units
kick, bucket,
heavy
or
father,
but the stylistic value of the word-group as a single
whole. Taken in isolation the words are stylistically neutral. It follows that
phraseological units are characterised by a single stylistic reference irre-
spective of the number and nature of their component words. Semantic
inseparability of phraseological units is viewed as one of the aspects of
idiomaticity
3
which enables us to regard them as semantically equivalent
to single words.
1
This approach and the ensuing classification were suggested by Prof. A. I. Smirnitsky
in his monograph “Лексикология английского языка". М., 1956.
2
See ‘Word-Groups and Phraseological Units’, § 4, p. 68.
3
Idiomaticity in the functional approach is understood as intralingual phenomenon.
79
§ 15. Criterion of Function
The term g r a m m a t i c a l i n s e p a r a b i l i t y implies that
the grammatical meaning or, to be more exact, the part-of-speech meaning
of phraseological units is felt as belonging to the word-group as a whole
irrespective of the part-of-speech meaning of the component words. Com-
paring the free word-group, e.g.
a long day,
and the phraseological unit,
e.g.
in the long run,
we observe that in the free word-group the noun
day
and the adjective
long
preserve the part-of-speech meaning proper to these
words taken in isolation. The whole group is viewed as composed of two
independent units (adjective and noun). In the phraseological unit
in the
long run
the part-of-speech meaning belongs to the group as a single
whole.
In the long run
is grammatically equivalent to single adverbs, e.g.
finally, ultimately, firstly,
etc.
In
the case of the phraseological unit under
discussion there is no connection between the part-of-speech meaning of
the member-words (in — preposition,
long
— adjective,
run
— noun) and
the part-of-speech meaning of the whole word-group. Grammatical insepa-
rability of phraseological units viewed as one of the aspects of idiomaticity
enables us to regard them as grammatically equivalent to single words.
It is argued that the final test of the semantic and grammatical insepa-
rability of phrases is their functional unity, i.e. their aptness to function in
speech as single syntactic units.
It will be observed that in the free word-groups, e.g.
heavy weight,
long time,
the adjectives
heavy
and
long
function as attributes to other
members of the sentence
(weight, time),
whereas the phraseological units
heavy father
and
in the long run
are functionally inseparable and are al-
ways viewed as making up one and only one member of the sentence (the
subject or the object, etc.), i.e. they are functionally equivalent to single
words.
Proceeding from the assumption that phraseological units are non-
motivated word-groups functioning as word-equivalents by virtue of their
semantic and grammatical inseparability, we may classify them into noun
equivalents (e.g.
heavy father),
verb equivalents (e.g.
take place, break
the news),
adverb equivalents (e.g.
in the long run),
etc.
As far as their structure is concerned these groups are not homogene-
ous and may be subdivided into the same groups as variable phrases.
Among verb equivalents, for example, we may find verb-noun units
(take
place)
and verb-adverb units
(give
up),
l
adverb equivalents comprise
preposition-noun groups (e.g
by
heart, at length),
adverb-conjunction-
adverb groups (e.g.
far and wide),
etc.
As can be inferred from the above discussion,
the functional approach does not discard
idiomaticity as the main feature distinguish-
ing phraseological units from free word-groups, but seeks to establish
formal criteria of idiomaticity by analysing the syntactic function of phra-
seological units in speech.
1
It should be noted that the status of
give up
and structurally similar groups as phrase-
ological units is doubted by some linguists who regard up in give up as a particle but not as
a word, and consequently the whole is viewed not as a word-group but as a single compos-
ite verb. See, e.g
., I. V. Arnold.
The English Word. M., 1973, pp. 144, 145.
80
§ 16. Phraseological Units
and Idioms Proper
An
attempt is also made to distinguish phraseological units as word-
equivalents from i d i o m s proper, i.e. idiomatic units such as
that’s
where the shoe pinches, the cat is out of the bag, what will Mrs
Grundy
say?, etc. Unlike phraseological units, proverbs, sayings and quo-
tations do not always function as word-equivalents. They exist as ready-
made expressions with a specialised meaning of their own which cannot be
inferred from the meaning of their components taken singly. Due to this
the linguists who rely mainly on the criterion of idiomaticity classify prov-
erbs and sayings as phraseological units.
The proponents of the functional criterion argue that proverbs and say-
ings lie outside the province of phraseology. It is pointed out, firstly, that
the lack of motivation in such linguistic units is of an essentially different
nature. Idioms are mostly based on metaphors which makes the transferred
meaning of the whole expression more or less transparent. If we analyse
such idioms, as, e.g.,
to carry coals to Newcastle, to fall between two
stools,
or
fine feathers make fine birds,
we observe that though their
meaning cannot be inferred from the literal meaning of the member-words
making up these expressions, they are still metaphorically motivated as the
literal meaning of the whole expression readily suggests its meaning as an
idiom, i.e. ‘to do something that is absurdly superfluous’, ‘fail through tak-
ing an intermediate course’ and ‘to be well dressed to give one an impres-
sive appearance’ respectively.
1
The meaning of the phraseological units,
e.g.
red tape, heavy father, in the long run,
etc., cannot be deduced ei-
ther from the meaning of the component words or from the metaphorical
meaning of the word-group as a whole.
Secondly, the bulk of idioms never function in speech as word-
equivalents which is a proof of their semantic and grammatical separabil-
ity.
It is also suggested that idioms in general have very much in common
with quotations from literary sources, some of which also exist as idio-
matic ready-made units with a specialised meaning of their own. Such quo-
tations which have acquired specialised meaning and idiomatic value, as,
e.g.,
to
be
or not to
be (Shakespeare),
to cleanse the Augean stables
(my-
thology),
a voice crying out in the wilderness
(the Bible), etc. differ little
from proverbs and sayings which may also be regarded as quotations from
English folklore and are part of this particular branch of literary studies.
The definition of phraseological units as idio-
matic word-groups functioning as word-
equivalents has also been subject to criticism. The main disputable points
are as follows:
1. The criterion of function is regarded as not quite reliable when used
with a view to singling out phraseological units from among other more or
less idiomatic word-groups. The same word-groups may function in some
utterances as an inseparable group and in others as a separable group with
each component performing its own syntactic function. This
1
Definitions are reproduced from
V. H. Collins.
A Book of English Idioms. London,
1960.
81
§ 17. Some Debatable Points