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Offsprings of the English national literary language, the British local
dialects are marked off from the former and from each other by some
phonetic, grammatical and lexical peculiarities. In this book we are natu-
rally concerned only with the latter.
Careful consideration of the national and the dialect vocabularies dis-
closes that the most marked difference between them lies in the limited
character of the dialect vocabularies. The literary language contains many
words not to be found in dialects, among them technical and scientific
terms.
Local lexical peculiarities, as yet the least studied, are most noticeable
in specifically dialectal words pertaining to local customs, social life and
natural conditions:
laird
— ‘landed proprietor in Scotland’,
burgh
—
‘Scottish chartered” town’,
kirk
— ‘church’,
loch
— ‘Scottish lake or
landlocked arm of the sea’, etc. There are many names of objects and
processes connected with farming, such as the names of agricultural proc-
esses, tools, domestic animals and the like, e.g.
galloway
— ‘horse of
small strong breed from Galloway, Scotland’,
kyloe
— ‘one of small
breed of long-horned Scotch cattle’,
shelty
— ‘Shetland pony’. There is
also a considerable number of emotionally coloured dialectal words, e.g.
Scot,
bonny
— ‘beautiful, healthy-looking’,
braw
— ‘fine, excellent’,
daffy
— ‘crazy, silly’,
cuddy
— ‘fool, ass’,
loon
— ‘clumsy, stupid per-
son’.
In addition, words may have different meanings in the national lan-
guage and in the local dialects, e.g. in the Scottish dialect the word to call
is used in the meaning of ‘to drive’,
to set
— ‘to suit’,
short
— ‘rude’,
silly
— ‘weak’, etc.
Dialectal lexical differences also embrace word-building patterns. For
instance, some Irish words contain the diminutive suffixes -
an
,
-een, -can
,
as in
bohaun
— ‘cabin’ (from Irish
both
— ‘cabin’);
bohereen
— ‘nar-
row road’ (from Irish
bothar
— ‘road’);
mearacaun
— ‘thimble’ (from
Irish
mear
— ‘finger’); etc. Some of these suffixes may even be added to
English bases, as in
girleen, dogeen, squireen (squirrel
), etc. Some spe-
cifically dialectal derivatives are formed from standard English stems with
the help of standard English affixes, e.g.
Scot.
flesher
— ‘butcher’,
sud-
denty
— ’suddenness’.
A great number of words specifically dialectal appeared as a result of
intense borrowing from other languages, others are words that have disap-
peared from the national literary language or become archaic, poetical,
such as
gang
— ‘go’,
OE
заnзаn;
bairn
— ‘child’,
OE
bearn
, etc. Thus,
the lexical differences between the English national language and its dia-
lects are due to the difference in the spheres of application, different tem-
poes of development, different contacts with other peoples, and deliberate
elaboration of literary norms.
The local dialects in Britain are sharply de-
clining in importance at the present time;
they are being obliterated by the literary lan-
guage. This process is twofold. On the one
hand, lexical units of the literary language enter local dialects, ousting
some of their words and expressions. On the other hand, dialectal words
penetrate into the
20?
§ 5. The Relationship Between
the English National
Language and British
Local Dialects
national literary language. Many frequent words of common use are dia-
lectal in origin, such as
girl, one, raid, glamour,
etc. Some words from
dialects are used as technical terms or professionalisms in the literary lan-
guage, e.g. the Scotch
cuddy
— ‘ass’ is used in the meaning of jack-screw
and
lug
— ‘ear’ in the meaning of handle.
Dialect peculiarities (phonetical, grammatical, but mainly lexical)
modify in varying degrees the language spoken in different parts of Brit-
ain. These speech-forms are called regional variants of the national lan-
guage and they are gradually replacing the old local dialects. It should be
noted that the word dialect is used in two meanings nowadays: to denote
the old dialects which are now dying away, and to denote the regional
variants, i.e. a literary standard with some features from local dialects.
The most marked difference between dialects and regional variants in
the field of phonetics lies in the fact that dialects possess phonemic dis-
tinctions, while regional variants are characterised by phonetic distinc-
tions. In matters of vocabulary and grammar the difference is in the
greater number and greater diversity of local peculiarities in the dialects
as compared with the regional variants.
The English language in the United States is
characterised by relative uniformity throughout
the country. One can travel three thousand miles without encountering
any but the slightest dialect differences. Nevertheless, regional variations
in speech undoubtedly exist and they have been observed and recorded by
a number of investigators.
The following three major belts of dialects have so far been identified,
each with its own characteristic features: Northern, Midland and South-
ern, Midland being in turn divided into North Midland and South Mid-
land.
The differences in pronunciation between American dialects are most
apparent, but they seldom interfere with understanding. Distinctions in
grammar are scarce. The differences in vocabulary are rather numerous,
but they are easy to pick up. Cf., e.g., Eastern New England
sour
-
milk
cheese
, Inland Northern
Dutch cheese
, New York City pot cheese for
Standard American
cottage cheese
(творог).
The American linguist O. F. Emerson maintains that American Eng-
lish had not had time to break up into widely diverse dialects and he be-
lieves that in the course of time the American dialects might finally be-
come nearly as distinct as the dialects in Britain. He is certainly greatly
mistaken. In modern times „dialect divergence cannot increase. On the
contrary, in the United States, as elsewhere, the national language is
tending to wipe out the dialect distinctions and to become still more uni-
form.
Comparison of the dialect differences in the British Isles and in the
USA reveals that not only are they less numerous and far less marked in
the USA, but that the very nature of the local distinctions is different.
What is usually known as American dialects is closer in nature to re-
gional variants of the literary language. The problem of discriminating
between literary and dialect speech patterns in the USA is much more
203
§ 6. Local Dialects in the USA
complicated than in Britain. Many American linguists point out that
American English differs from British English in having no one locality
whose speech patterns have come to be recognised as the model for the
rest of the country.
1. English is the national language of England
proper, the USA, Australia and some provinces
of Canada. It was also at different times imposed on the inhabitants of the
former and present British colonies and protectorates as well as other Brit-
ain- and US-dominated territories, where the population has always stuck
to its own mother tongue.
2.
British English, American English and Australian English are vari-
ants of the same language, because they serve all spheres of verbal com-
munication. Their structural peculiarities, especially morphology, syntax
and word-formation, as well as their word-stock and phonetic system are
essentially the same. American and Australian standards are slight modifi-
cations of the norms accepted in the British Isles. The status of Canadian
English has not yet been established.
3.
The main lexical differences between the variants are caused by the
lack of equivalent lexical units in one of them, divergences in the semantic
structures of polysemantic words and peculiarities of usage of some words
on different territories.
4.
The so-called local dialects in the British Isles and in the USA are
used only by the rural population and only for the purposes of oral com-
munication. In both variants local distinctions are more marked in pronun-
ciation, less conspicuous in vocabulary and insignificant in grammar.
5.
The British local dialects can be traced back to Old English dialects.
Numerous and distinct, they are characterised by phonemic and structural
peculiarities. The local dialects are being gradually replaced by regional
variants of the literary language, i. e. by a literary standard with a propor-
tion of local dialect features.
6.
Local variations in the USA are relatively small. What is called by
tradition American dialects is closer in nature to regional variants of the
national literary language.
§ 7. Summary and Conclusions
IX. Fundamentals of English Lexicography
Lexicography, the science, of dictionary-compiling, is closely con-
nected with lexicology, both dealing with the same problems — the form,
meaning, usage and origin of vocabulary units — and making use of each
other’s achievements.
On the one hand, the enormous raw material collected in dictionaries is
widely used by linguists in their research. On the other hand, the principles
of dictionary-making are always based on linguistic fundamentals, and
each individual entry is made up in accordance with the current knowledge
and findings of scholars in the various fields of language study. The com-
piler’s approach to various lexicological problems (such as homonymy,
phraseological units, etc.) always finds reflection in the selection and ar-
rangement of the material.
MAIN TYPES OF ENGLISH DICTIONARIES
There are many different types of English
dictionaries. First of all they may all be
roughly divided into two groups — e n c y c l o p a e d i c and l i n -
g u i s t i c .
The two groups of reference books differ essentially in the choice of
items included and in the sort of information given about them. Linguistic
d i c t i o n a r i e s are wоrd-books, their subject’ matter is lexical units
and their linguistic properties such as pronunciation, meaning, peculiarities
of use, etc. T h e e n c y c l o p a e d i c d i c t i o n a r i e s , the big-
gest of which are sometimes called simply encyclopaedias are t h i n g -
books, that give information about the extra-linguistic world, they deal
with concepts (objects and phenomena), their relations to other objects and
phenomena, etc.
It follows that the encyclopaedic dictionaries will never enter items
like father, go, that, be, if, black, but only those of designative character,
such as names for substances, diseases, plants and animals, institutions,
terms of science, some important events in history and also geographical
and biographical entries.
Although some of the items included in encyclopaedic and linguistic
dictionaries coincide, such as the names of some diseases, the information
presented in them is altogether different. The former give much more ex-
tensive information on these subjects. For example, the entry influenza in a
linguistic dictionary presents the word’s spelling and pronunciation,
grammar characteristics, synonyms, etc. In an encyclopaedia the entry in-
fluenza discloses the causes, symptoms, characteristics and varieties of this
disease, various treatments of and remedies for it , ways of infection, etc.
Though, strictly speaking, it is with linguistic dictionaries that lexicol-
ogy is closely connected and in our further consideration we
210
§ 1. Encyclopae-
dic and Linguistic Dic-
shall be concerned with this type of reference books only, it may be use-
ful for students of English to know that the most well-known encyclopae-
dias in English are
The Encyclopaedia Britannica
(in 24 volumes) and
The Encyclopedia Americana
(in 30 volumes). Very popular in Great
Britain and the USA are also
Collier’s Encyclopedia
(in 24 vols) intended
for students and school teachers,
Chamber’s Encyclopaedia
(in 15 vols)
which is a family type reference book, and
Everyman’s Encyclopaedia
(in 12 vols) designed for all-round use.
Besides the general encyclopaedic dictionaries there are reference
books that are confined to definite fields of knowledge, such as
The Ox-
ford Companion to English Literature, Oxford Companion to Theatre,
Cassell's Encyclopaedia of World Literature,
etc.
There are also numerous ‘dictionaries presenting information about
notable persons (scientists, writers, kings, presidents, etc.) often called
Who’s Who
dictionaries.
As concept and word-meaning are closely bound up the encyclopaedic
and linguistic dictionaries often overlap. Encyclopaedias sometimes indi-
cate the origin of the word, which belongs to the domain of linguistics.
On the other hand, there are elements of encyclopaedic character in many
linguistic dictionaries. Some of these are unavoidable. With terms, for
instance, a lexicographic definition of meaning will not differ greatly
from a short logical definition of the respective concept in encyclopaedic
dictionaries. Some dictionary-compilers include in their word-lists such
elements of purely encyclopaedic nature as names of famous people to-
gether with their birth and death dates or the names of major cities and
towns, giving not only their correct spelling and pronunciation, but also a
brief description of their population, location, etc.
For practical purposes it is important to know that American diction-
aries are characterised by encyclopaedic inclusion of scientific, technical,
geographical and bibliographical items whereas it is common practice
with British lexicographers to exclude from their dictionaries information
of this kind to devote maximum space to the linguistic properties of
words.
Thus a linguistic dictionary is a book of
words in a language, usually listed alpha-
betically, with definitions, pronunciations, etymologies and other linguis-
tic information or with their equivalents in another language (or other
languages).
Linguistic dictionaries may be divided into different categories by dif-
ferent criteria. According to the nature of their word-list we may speak
about g e n e r a l d i с t i о n a r i e s , on the one hand, and restriсted,
on the other. The terms g e n e r a l and r e s t r i c t e d do not refer to
the size of the dictionary or to the number of items listed. What is meant is
that the former contain lexical units in ordinary use with this or that pro-
portion of items from various spheres of life, while the latter make their
choice only from a certain part of the word-stock, the restriction being
based on any principle determined by the compiler. To r e s t r i c t e d
d i c t i o n a r i e s belong
211
§ 2. Classifica-
tion of Linguistic Dic-