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far as the repertory of the lexical units recorded in the preserved texts
goes. As to living languages with new texts constantly coming into exis-
tence, with an endless number of spoken utterances, no dictionary of rea-
sonable size could possibly register all occasional applications of a lexical
unit, nor is it possible to present all really occurring lexical items. There is,
for instance, no possibility of recording all the technical terms because
they are too numerous and their number increases practically every day
(chemical terminology alone is said to consist of more than 400,000
terms). Therefore selection is obviously necessary for all dictionaries.
The choice of lexical units for inclusion in the prospective dictionary is
one of the first problems the lexicographer faces.
First of all the type of lexical units to be chosen for inclusion is to be
decided upon. Then the number of items to be recorded must be deter-
mined. Then there is the basic problem of what to select and what to leave
out in the dictionary. Which form of the language, spoken or written or
both, is the dictionary to reflect? Should the dictionary contain obsolete
and archaic units, technical terms, dialectisms, colloquialisms, and so
forth?
There is no general reply to any of these questions. The choice among
the different possible answers depends upon the type to which the diction-
ary will belong, the aim the compilers pursue, the prospective user of the
dictionary, its size, the linguistic conceptions of the dictionary-makers and
some other considerations.
Explanatory and translation dictionaries usually record words and
phraseological units, some of them also include affixes as separate entries.
Synonym-books, pronouncing, etymological dictionaries and some others
deal only with words. Frequency dictionaries differ in the type of units
included. Most of them enter graphic units, thus failing to discriminate
between homographs (such as
back
n,
back
adv,
back
v)
and listing in-
flected forms of the same words (such as
go, gone, going, goes)
as sepa-
rate items; others enter words in accordance with the usual lexicographic
practice; still others record morphemes or collocations.
The number of entries is usually reduced at the expense of some defi-
nite strata of the vocabulary, such as dialectisms, jargonisms, technical
terms, foreign words and the less frequently used words (archaisms, obso-
lete words, etc.).
The policy settled on depends to a great extent on the aim of the dic-
tionary. As to general explanatory dictionaries, for example, diachronic
and synchronic word-books differ greatly in their approach to the problem.
Since the former are concerned with furnishing an account of the historical
development of lexical units, such dictionaries as
NED
and
SOD
embrace
not only the vocabulary of oral and written English of the present day, to-
gether with such technical and scientific words as are most frequently met
with, but also a considerable proportion of obsolete, archaic, and dialectal
words and uses. Synchronic explanatory dictionaries include mainly com-
mon words in ordinary present-day use with only some more important
archaic and technical words. Naturally the bigger the dictionary, the larger
is the measure of peripheral words,
217
the greater the number of words that are so infrequently used as to be
mere museum pieces.
In accordance with the compiler’s aim the units for inclusion are
drawn either from other dictionaries or from some reading matter or from
the spoken discourse. For example, the corpus from which the word fre-
quencies are derived may be composed of different types of textual mate-
rial: books of fiction, scientific and technical literature, newspapers and
magazines, school textbooks, personal or business letters, interviews, tele-
phone conversations, etc.
Because of the difference between spoken and written language it is to
be remembered in dealing with word-books based on printed or written
matter that they tend to undervalue the items used more frequently in oral
speech and to overweight the purely literary items.
The order of arrangement of the entries to be
included is different in different types of dic-
tionaries and even in the word-books of the same type. In most dictionar-
ies of various types entries are given in a single alphabetical listing. In
many others the units entered are arranged in nests, based on this or that
principle.
In some explanatory and translation dictionaries, for example, entries
are grouped in families of words of the same root. In this case the basic
units are given as main entries that appear in alphabetical order while the
derivatives and the phrases which the word enters are given either as sub-
entries or in the same entry, as run-ons that are also alphabetised. The dif-
ference between subentries and run-ons is that the former do include defi-
nitions and usage labels, whereas run-on words are not defined as mean-
ing is clear from the main entry (most often because they are built after
productive patterns).
Compare, for example, how the words
despicable
and
despicably
are
entered in the two dictionaries:
COD
despicable,
a.
Vile, contemptible Hence
— LY
2
adv.
WNWD
despicable
adj.
that is or should be despised;
contemptible.
despicably
adv.
in a despicable
manner
In synonym-books words are arranged in synonymic sets and its
dominant member serves as the head-word of the entry.
In some phraseological dictionaries, e.g. in prof. Koonin’s dictionary,
the phrases are arranged in accordance with their pivotal words which are
defined as constant non-interchangeable elements of phrases.
A variation of the cluster-type arrangement can be found in the few
frequency dictionaries in which the items included are not arranged alpha-
betically. In such dictionaries the entries follow each other in the descend-
ing order of their frequency, items of the same frequency value grouped
together.
Each of the two modes of presentation, the alphabetical and the clus-
ter-type, has its own advantages. The former provides for an easy finding
of any word and establishing its meaning, frequency value, etc. The latter
requires less space and presents a clearer picture of the
218
§ 7. Arrangement of Entries
relations of each unit under consideration with some other units in the lan-
guage system, since words of the same root, the same denotational mean-
ing or close in their frequency value are grouped together.
Practically, however, most dictionaries are a combination of the two
orders of arrangement. In most explanatory and translation dictionaries the
main entries, both simple words and derivatives, appear in alphabetical
order, with this or that measure of run-ons, thrown out of alphabetical or-
der.
If the order of arrangement is not strictly alphabetical in synonym-
books and phraseological dictionaries, very often an alphabetical index is
supplied to ensure easy handling of the dictionary.
Some frequency dictionaries, among them nearly all those constructed
in our country, contain two parts with both types of lists.
One of the most difficult problems nearly ‘ all
lexicographers face is recording the word-
meanings and arranging them in the
most rational way, in the order that is supposed to be of most help to those
who will use the dictionary.
If one compares the general number of meanings of a word in different
dictionaries even those of the same type, one will easily see that their
number varies considerably.
Compare, for example, the number and choice of meanings in the en-
tries for
arrive
taken from
COD
and
WCD
given below
1
. As we see,
COD
records only the meanings current at the present moment, whereas
WCD
also lists those that are now obsolete.
The number of meanings a word is given and their choice in this or that
dictionary depend, mainly, on two factors: 1) on what aim the compilers
set themselves and 2) what decisions they make concerning the extent to
which obsolete, archaic, dialectal or highly specialised meanings should
be recorded, how the problem of polysemy and homonymy is solved, how
cases of conversion are treated, how the segmentation of different mean-
ings of a polysemantic word is made, etc.
It is natural, for example, that diachronic dictionaries list many more
meanings than synchronic dictionaries of current English, as they record
not only the meanings in present-day use, but also those that have already
become archaic or gone out of use. Thus
SOD
lists eight meanings of the
word
arrive
(two of which are now obsolete and two are archaic), while
COD
gives five.
Students sometimes think that if the meaning is placed first in the en-
try, it must be the most important, the most frequent in present-day use.
This is not always the case. It depends on the plan followed by the com-
pilers.
There are at least three different ways in which the word meanings are
arranged: in the sequence of their historical development (called h i s -
t o r i c a l o r d e r ) , in conformity with frequency of use that is with
the most common meaning first ( e m p i r i c a l or a c t u a l o r -
d e r ) , and in their logical connection ( l o g i c a l o r d e r ) .
1
See p. 223
219
§ 8. Selection and Arrangement of
Meanings
In different dictionaries the problem of arrangement is solved in differ-
ent ways. It is well-accepted practice in Soviet lexicography to follow the
historical order in diachronic dictionaries and to adhere to the empirical
and logical order in synchronic word-books.
As to dictionaries published in English-speaking countries, they are not
so consistent in this respect. It is natural that diachronic dictionaries are
based on the principle of historical sequence, but the same principle is also
followed by some synchronic dictionaries as well (e.g. by
NID
and some
other Webster’s dictionaries).
In many other dictionaries meanings are generally organised by fre-
quency of use, but sometimes the primary meaning comes first if this is
considered essential to a correct understanding of derived meanings. For
example, in the
WCD
entry for
arrive
given below
1
it is the primary, ety-
mological meaning that is given priority of place, though it is obsolete in
our days.
2
Meanings of words may be defined in different
ways: 1) by means of definitions that are char-
acterised as encyclopaedic, 2) by means of descriptive definitions or para-
phrases, 3) with the help of synonymous words and expressions, 4) by
means of cross-references.
Encyclopaedic definitions as distinct from descriptive definitions de-
termine not only the word-meaning, but also the underlying concept.
COD
coal
ft.
1.
Hard opaque black or blackish mineral or vegetable matter
found in seams or strata below earth’s surface and used as fuel and in
manufacture of gas, tar, etc. ANTHRACITE, BITUMINOUS COAL,
LIGNITE; ...
Synonymous definitions consist of words or word-groups with nearly
equivalent meaning, as distinct from descriptive definitions which are ex-
planations with the help of words not synonymous with the word to be de-
fined.
For example, in the two entries for
despicable
given above
COD
de-
fines the word-meaning with the help of synonyms, while
WNWD
uses
both descriptive and synonymous definitions.
Reference to other words as a means of semantisation can be illustrated
with the following examples taken from
COD:
defense. See defence
decre-
scendo.
= diminuendo
It is the descriptive definitions that are used in an overwhelming major-
ity of entries. While the general tendency is the same, words belonging to
different parts of speech and to different groups within them have their
own peculiarities. Encyclopaedic definitions are typical of nouns, espe-
cially proper nouns and terms. Synonyms are used most
1
See p. 223.
2
See also a detailed comparison of the entries for the word
anecdote
in four dictionar-
ies made by Mathews (Readings in English Lexicology, pp. 196-201).
220
§ 9. Definition of Meanings
often to define verbs and adjectives. Reference to other words is resorted
to define some derivatives, abbreviations and variant forms.
Apart from the nature of the word to be defined the type of definitions
given preference depends on the aim of the dictionary and its size. For in-
stance encyclopaedic definitions play a very important role in unabridged
dictionaries (especially those published in America); in middle-size dic-
tionaries they are used for the most part to define ethnographic and histori-
cal concepts. Synonymous definitions play a secondary role in unabridged
dictionaries where they are used as an addition to descriptive or encyclo-
paedic definitions, and are much more important in shorter dictionaries,
probably because they are a convenient means to economise space.
It is common knowledge that all dictionaries
save those of a narrowly restricted purpose,
such as, e.g., frequency dictionaries, spelling books, etymological, pro-
nouncing, ideographic or reverse dictionaries, provide illustrative exam-
ples.
• The purpose of these examples depends on the type of the dictionary
and on the aim the compilers set themselves. They can illustrate the first
and the last known occurrences of the entry word, the successive changes
in its graphic and phonetic forms, as well as in its meaning, the typical pat-
terns and collocations, the difference between synonymous words, they
place words in a context to clarify their meanings and usage.
When are illustrative examples to be used? Which words may be listed
without illustrations? Should illustrative sentences be made up, or should
they always be quotations of some authors? How much space should be
devoted to illustrative examples? Which examples should be chosen as
typical?
Those are some of the questions to be considered.
In principle only some technical terms that are monosemantic can, if
precisely defined, be presented without examples even in a large diction-
ary. In practice, however, because of space considerations this is not the
case. It is natural that the bigger the dictionary the more examples it usu-
ally contains. Only very small dictionaries, usually of low quality, do not
include examples at all.
As to the nature of examples, diachronic dictionaries make use of quo-
tations drawn from literary sources, while in synchronic dictionaries
quoted examples are preferred by big dictionaries, in middle-size diction-
aries illustrative sentences and phrases drawn from classical and contem-
porary sources or those constructed by the compilers are employed.
The form of the illustrative quotations can differ in different dictionar-
ies; the main variation can be observed in the length of the quotation and
in the precision of the citation.
Some dictionaries indicate the author, the work, the page, verse, or line,
and (in diachronic dictionaries) the precise date of the publication, some
indicate only the author, because it gives at least basic orientation about
the time when the word occurs and the type of text.
It is necessary to stress the fact that word-meanings can be explained
221
§ 10. Illustrative Examples