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only partially motivated because of the absence of the lexical meaning in
the morpheme
cran-.
One more point should be noted in connection with the problem in
question. A synchronic approach to morphological motivation presupposes
historical changeability of structural patterns and the ensuing degree of
motivation. Some English place-names may serve as an illustration. Such
place-names as
Newtowns
and
Wildwoods
are lexically and structurally
motivated and may be easily analysed into component morphemes. Other
place-names, e.g.
Essex, Norfolk, Sutton,
are non-motivated. To the aver-
age English speaker these names are non-analysable lexical units like
sing
or
tell.
However, upon examination the student of language history will
perceive their components to be
East+Saxon, North+Folk and
South+Town
which shows that in earlier days they .were just as com-
pletely motivated as
Newtowns
or
Wildwoods
are in Modern English.
Motivation is usually thought of as proceed-
ing from form or structure to meaning. Mor-
phological motivation as discussed above implies a direct connection be-
tween the morphological structure of the word and its meaning. Some lin-
guists, however, argue that words can be motivated in more than one way
and suggest another type of motivation which may be described as a direct
connection between the phonetical structure of the word and its meaning.
It is argued that speech sounds may suggest spatial and visual dimensions,
shape, size, etc. Experiments carried out by a group of linguists showed
that back open vowels are suggestive of big size, heavy weight, dark col-
our, etc. The experiments were repeated many times and the results were
always the same. Native speakers of English were asked to listen to pairs
of antonyms from an unfamiliar (or non-existent) language unrelated to
English, e.g.
ching — chung
and then to try to find the English equiva-
lents, e.g.
light — heavy, (big — small,
etc.), which foreign word trans-
lates which English word. About 90 per cent of English speakers felt that
ching
is the equivalent of the English
light
(small) and
chung
of its anto-
nym
heavy
(large).
It is also pointed out that this type of phonetical motivation may be ob-
served in the phonemic structure of some newly coined words. For exam-
ple, the small transmitter that specialises in high frequencies is called ‘a
tweeter’, the transmitter for low frequences ‘a woofer’.
Another type of phonetical motivation is represented by such words as
swish, sizzle, boom, splash,
etc. These words may be defined as phoneti-
cally motivated because the soundclusters [swi∫, sizl, bum, splæ∫] are a di-
rect imitation of the sounds these words denote. It is also suggested that
sounds themselves may be emotionally expressive which accounts for the
phonetical motivation in certain words. Initial [f] and [p], e.g., are felt as
expressing scorn, contempt, disapproval or disgust which can be illustrated
by the words
pooh! fie! fiddle-sticks, flim-flam
and the like. The sound-
cluster [iŋ] is imitative of sound or swift movement as can be seen in
words
ring,
sing,
swing, fling,
etc. Thus, phonetically such words may be
considered motivated.
This hypothesis seems to require verification. This of course is not to
26
§ 18. Phonetical Motivation
deny that there are some words which involve phonetical symbolism:
these are the onomatopoeic, imitative or echoic words such as the English
cuckoo, splash
and
whisper:
And even these are not completely moti-
vated but seem to be conventional to quite a large extent (cf.
кукареку
and
cock-a-doodle-doo). In
any case words like these constitute only a small
and untypical minority in the language. As to symbolic value of certain
sounds, this too is disproved by the fact that identical sounds and sound-
clusters may be found in words of widely different meaning, e.g. initial [p]
and [f ], are found in words expressing contempt and disapproval
(fie,
pooh)
and also in such words as
ploughs fine,
and others. The sound-
cluster [in] which is supposed to be imitative of sound or swift movement
(ring, swing)
is also observed in semantically different words, e.g.
thing,
king,
and others.
The term m o t i v a t i o n is also used by a
number of linguists to denote the relationship
between the central and the coexisting meaning or meanings of a word
which are understood as a metaphorical extension of the central meaning.
Metaphorical extension may be viewed as generalisation of the denota-
tional meaning of a word permitting it to include new referents which are
in some way like the original class of referents. Similarity of various as-
pects and/or functions of different classes of referents may account for the
semantic motivation of a number of minor meanings. For example, a
woman who has given birth is called
a mother;
by extension, any act that
gives birth is associated with being
a mother, e.g.
in
Necessity is the
mother of invention.
The same principle can be observed in other mean-
ings: a mother looks after a child, so that we can say
She became a
mother to her orphan nephew,
or
Romulus and Remus were suppos-
edly mothered by a wolf.
Cf. also
mother country, a mother’s mark
(=a birthmark), mother tongue,
etc. Such metaphoric extension may be
observed in the so-called trite metaphors, such as
burn
with anger, break
smb’s heart, jump at a chance,
etc.
If
metaphorical extension is observed in the relationship of the central
and a minor word meaning it is often observed in the relationship between
its synonymic or antonymic meanings. Thus, a few years ago the phrases a
meeting at the summit, a summit meeting
appeared in the newspapers.
Cartoonists portrayed the participants of such summit meetings sitting
on mountain tops. Now when lesser diplomats confer the talks are called
foothill meetings. In
this way both
summit
and its antonym
foothill
un-
dergo the process of metaphorical extension.
1. Lexical meaning with its denotational and
connotational components may be found in
morphemes of different types. The denotational meaning in affixal mor-
phemes may be rather vague and abstract, the lexical meaning and the
part-of-speech meaning tending to blend.
2.
It is suggested that in addition to lexical meaning morphemes may
contain specific types of meaning: differential, functional and distribu-
tional.
3.
Differential meaning in morphemes is the semantic component
27
§ 19. Semantic Motivation
§ 20. Summary and Conclusions
which serves to distinguish one word from other words of similar mor-
phemic structure. Differential and denotational meanings are not mutually
exclusive.
4.
Functional meaning is the semantic component that serves primarily
to refer the word to a certain part of speech.
5.
Distributional meaning is the meaning of the pattern of the ar-
rangement of the morphemes making up the word. Distributional meaning
is to be found in all words composed of more than one morpheme. It may
be the dominant semantic component in words containing morphemes de-
prived of denotational meaning.
6.
Morphological motivation implies a direct connection between the
lexical meaning of the component morphemes, the pattern of their ar-
rangement and the meaning of the word. The degree of morphological mo-
tivation may be different varying from the extreme of complete motivation
to lack of motivation.
7.
Phonetical motivation implies a direct connection between the pho-
netic structure of the word and its meaning. Phonetical motivation is not
universally recognised in modern linguistic science.
8.
Semantic motivation implies a direct connection between the central
and marginal meanings of the word. This connection may be regarded as a
metaphoric extension of the central meaning based on the similarity of dif-
ferent classes of referents denoted by the word.
CHANGE Of MEANING
Word-meaning is liable to change in the course of the historical devel-
opment of language. Changes of lexical meaning may be illustrated by a
diachronic semantic analysis of many commonly used English words. The
word
fond
(OE.
fond)
used to mean ‘foolish’, ‘foolishly credulous’;
glad
(OE,
glaed)
had the meaning of ‘bright’, ’shining’ and so on.
Change of meaning has been thoroughly studied and as a matter of fact
monopolised the attention of all semanticists whose work up to the early
1930’s was centered almost exclusively on the description and classifica-
tion of various changes of meaning. Abundant language data can be found
in almost all the books dealing with semantics. Here we shall confine the
discussion to a brief outline of the problem as it is viewed in modern lin-
guistic science.
To avoid the ensuing confusion of terms and concepts it is necessary to
discriminate between the causes of semantic change, the results and the
nature of the process of change of meaning.
1
These are three closely
bound up, but essentially different aspects of one and the same problem.
Discussing the causes of semantic change we concentrate on the fac-
tors bringing about -this change and attempt to find out w h y the word
changed its meaning. Analysing the nature of semantic change we seek
i See
St. Ullmann.
The Principles of Semantics. Chapter 8, Oxford, 1963. 28
to clarify the process of this change and describe
how
various changes of
meaning were brought about. Our aim in investigating the results of se-
mantic change is to find out w h a t was changed, i.e. we compare the
resultant and the original meanings and describe the difference between
them mainly in terms of the changes of the denotational components.
The factors accounting for semantic changes
may be roughly subdivided into two groups:
a) extra-linguistic and b) linguistic causes.
By extra-linguistic causes we mean various changes in the life of the
speech community, changes in economic and social structure, changes in
ideas, scientific concepts, way of life and other spheres of human activi-
ties as reflected in word meanings. Although objects, institutions, con-
cepts, etc. change in the course of time in many cases the soundform of
the words which denote them is retained but the meaning of the words is
changed. The word
car,
e.g., ultimately goes back to Latin
carrus
which
meant ‘a four-wheeled wagon’
(ME.
carre)
but now that other means of
transport are used it denotes ‘a motor-car’, ‘a railway carriage’ (in the
USA), ‘that portion of an airship, or balloon which is intended to carry
personnel, cargo or equipment’.
Some changes of meaning are due to what may be described as purely
linguistic causes, i.e. factors acting within the language system. The
commonest form which this influence takes is the so-called ellipsis. In a
phrase made up of two words one of these is omitted and its meaning is
transferred to its partner. The verb
to starve,
e.g., in Old English (OE.
steorfan) had the meaning ‘to die’ and was habitually used in collocation
with the word
hunger
(ME.
sterven of hunger).
Already in the 16th cen-
tury the verb itself acquired the meaning ‘to die of hunger’. Similar se-
mantic changes may be observed in Modern English when the meaning of
one word is transferred to another because they habitually occur together
in speech.
Another linguistic cause is discrimination of synonyms which can be
illustrated by the semantic development of a number of words. The word
land,
e.g., in Old English
(OE.
land)
meant both ’solid part of earth’s sur-
face’ and ‘the territory of a nation’. When in the Middle English period
the word
country
(OFr.
contree)
was borrowed as its synonym, the
meaning of the word
land
was somewhat altered and ‘the territory of
a
nation’ came to be denoted mainly by the borrowed word
country.
Some semantic changes may be accounted for by the influence of a
peculiar factor usually referred to as linguistic analogy. It was found out,
e.g., that if one of the members of a synonymic set acquires a new mean-
ing other members of this set change their meanings too. It was observed,
e.g., that all English adverbs which acquired the meaning ‘rapidly’ (in a
certain period of time — before 1300) always develop the meaning ‘im-
mediately’, similarly verbs synonymous with
catch, e.g. grasp, get,
etc.,
by semantic extension acquired another meaning — ‘to understand’.
1
1
See ‘Semasiology’, § 19, p. 27,
29
§ 21. Causes of Semantic
Chang
Generally speaking, a necessary condition of
any semantic change, no matter what its
cause, is some connection, some association
between the old meaning and the new. There are two kinds of association
involved as a rule in various semantic changes namely: a) similarity of
meanings, and b) contiguity of meanings.
S i m i l a r i t y of m e a n i n g s or metaphor may be described
as a semantic process of associating two referents, one of which in some
way resembles the other. The word
hand,
e.g., acquired in the 16th cen-
tury the meaning of ‘a pointer of a clock of a watch’ because of the simi-
larity of one of the functions performed by the hand (to point at some-
thing) and the function of the clockpointer. Since metaphor is based on the
perception of similarities it is only natural that when an analogy is obvi-
ous, it should give rise to a metaphoric meaning. This can be observed in
the wide currency of metaphoric meanings of words denoting parts of the
human body in various languages (cf. ‘the leg of the table’, ‘the foot of the
hill’, etc.). Sometimes it is similarity of form, outline, etc. that underlies
the metaphor. The words
warm
and
cold
began to denote certain qualities
of human voices because of some kind of similarity between these quali-
ties and warm and cold temperature. It is also usual to perceive similarity
between colours and emotions.
It has also been observed that in many speech communities colour
terms, e.g. the words
black
and
white,
have metaphoric meanings in addi-
tion to the literal denotation of colours.
C o n t i g u i t y of meanings or metonymy may be described as
the semantic process of associating two referents one of which makes part
of the other or is closely connected with it.
, This can be perhaps best illustrated by the use of the word
tongue
—
‘the organ of speech’ in the meaning of ‘language’ (as in
mother tongue;
cf. also
L.
lingua,
Russ. язык).
The word
bench
acquired the meaning
‘judges, magistrates’ because it was on the
bench
that the judges used to
sit in law courts, similarly
the House
acquired the meaning of ‘members
of the House’
(Parliament).
It is generally held that metaphor plays a more important role in the
change of meaning than metonymy. A more detailed analysis would show
that there are some semantic changes that fit into more than the two groups
discussed above. A change of meaning, e.g., may be brought about by the
association between the sound-forms of two words. The word
boon,
e.g.”,
originally meant ‘prayer, petition’, ‘request’, but then came to denote ‘a
thing prayed or asked for’. Its current meaning is ‘a blessing, an advan-
tage, a thing to be thanked for.’ The change of meaning was probably due
to the similarity to the sound-form of the adjective
boon
(an Anglicised
form of French
bon
denoting ‘good, nice’).
Within metaphoric and metonymic changes we can single out various
subgroups. Here, however, we shall confine ourselves to a very general
outline of the main types of semantic association as discussed above. A
more detailed analysis of the changes of meaning and the nature of such
changes belongs in the diachronic or historical lexicology and lies outside
the scope of the present textbook.
30
§ 22. Nature of Semantic
Chang