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the highest frequency value and makes up 52% of all the uses of this word,
the meaning ‘an orderly arrangement of facts’ (table of contents) accounts
for 35%, all other meanings between them make up just 13% of the uses of
this word.
1
Of great importance is the stylistic stratification of meanings of
a
polysemantic word as individual meanings may differ in their stylistic ref-
erence. Stylistic (or regional) status of monosemantic words is easily per-
ceived. For instance the word
daddy
can be referred to the colloquial sty-
listic layer, the word
parent
to the bookish. The word
movie
is recognisa-
bly American and
barnie
is Scottish. Polysemantic words as a rule cannot
be given any such restrictive labels. To do it we must state the meaning in
which they are used. There is nothing colloquial or slangy or American
about the words
yellow
denoting colour,
jerk
in the meaning ‘a sudden
movement or stopping of movement’ as far as these particular meanings
are concerned. But when
yellow
is used in the meaning of ’sensational’ or
when
jerk
is used in the meaning of ‘an odd person’ it is both slang and
American.
Stylistically neutral meanings are naturally more frequent. The
polysemantic words
worker
and
hand,
e.g., may both denote ‘a man who
does manual work’, but whereas this is the most frequent and stylistically
neutral meaning of the word
worker,
it is observed only in 2.8% of all
occurrences of the word
hand,
in the semantic structure of which the
meaning ‘a man who does manual work’
(to hire factory hands)
is one of
its marginal meanings characterised by colloquial stylistic reference.
It should also be noted that the meaning which has the highest fre-
quency is the one representative of the whole semantic structure of the
word. This can be illustrated by analysing the words under discussion.
For
example the meaning representative of the word
hand
which first occurs
to us is ‘the end of the arm beyond the wrist’. This meaning accounts for
at least 77% of all occurrences of this word. This can also be observed by
comparing the word
hand
with its Russian equivalents. We take it for
granted that the English word
hand
is correlated with the Russian
рука,
but not with the Russian
рабочий
though this particular equivalent may
also be found, e.g. in the case of
to hire factory hands.
From the discussion of the diachronic and
synchronic approach to polysemy it follows
that the interrelation and
the
interdependence
of individual meanings of the word may be
described from two different angles. These two approaches are not mutu-
ally exclusive but are viewed here as supplementing each other in the lin-
guistic analysis of a polysemantic word.
It should be noted, however, that as the semantic structure is never
static, the relationship between the diachronic and synchronic evaluation
of individual meanings may be different in different periods of the histori-
cal development of language. This is perhaps best illustrated by
1
All data concerning semantic frequencies are reproduced from
M. A. West.
General
Service List of English Words. London, 1959.
§ 29. Historical
Changeability
of Semantic
Structure
the semantic analysis of the word
revolution.
Originally, when this word
first appeared in
ME.
1350 — 1450 it denoted ‘the revolving motion of
celestial bodies’ and also ‘the return or recurrence of a point or a period of
time’. Later on the word acquired other meanings and among them that of
‘a complete overthrow of the established government or regime’ and also
‘a complete change, a great reversal of conditions. The meaning ‘revolving
motion’ in
ME.
was both primary (diachronically) and central’ (synchron-
ically). In Modern English, however, while we can still diachronically de-
scribe this meaning as primary it is no longer synchronically central as the
arrangement of meanings in the semantic structure of the word revolution
has considerably changed and its central and the most frequent meaning is
‘a complete overthrow of the established government or the regime’. It
follows that the primary meaning of the word may become synchronically
one of its minor meanings and diachronically a secondary meaning may
become the central meaning of the word. The actual arrangement of mean-
ings in the semantic structure of any word in any historical period is the
result of the semantic development of this word within the system of the
given language.
The words of different languages which are
similar or identical in lexical meaning, espe-
cially in the denotational meani n g a r e
t er m e d c o r r e l a t e d w o r d s. The wording of the habitual
question of English learners, e.g. “What is the English for
стол?”,
and
the answer “The English for
стол
is ‘table'” also shows that we take the
words
table
стол
to be correlated. Semantic correlation, however, is not
to be interpreted as semantic identity. From what was said about the arbi-
trariness of the sound-form of words and complexity of their semantic
structure, it can be inferred that one-to-one correspondence between the
semantic structure of correlated polysemantic words in different lan-
guages is scarcely possible.
1
Arbitrariness of linguistic signs implies that one cannot deduce from
the sound-form of a word the meaning or meanings it possesses. Lan-
guages differ not only in the sound-form of words; their systems of mean-
ings are also different. It follows that the semantic structures of correlated
words of two different languages cannot be coextensive, i.e. can never
“cover each other". A careful analysis invariably shows that semantic rela-
tionship between correlated words, especially polysemantic words is very
complex.
The actual meanings of polysemantic words and their arrangement in
the semantic structure of correlated words in different languages may be
altogether different. This may be seen by comparing the semantic struc-
ture of correlated polysemantic words in English and in Russian. As a rule
it is only the central meaning that is to a great extent identical, all other
meanings or the majority of meanings usually differ. If we compare, e.g.,
the nine meanings of the English word
table
and the meanings of the Rus-
sian word
стол,
we shall easily observe not only the difference in the ar-
rangement and the number of meanings making up their
1
See ‘Semasiology’, § 1, p. 13,
37
§ 30. Polysemy
and Arbitrariness
of Semantic Structure
respective semantic structures, but also the difference in the individual
meanings that may, at first sight, appear similar.
table
стол
1.
a piece of furniture
1. предмет обстановки (сидеть за
столом)
2. the persons seated at a table
2.
Ср. арх.
застолица
3. the food put on a table, meals;
cooking
3. пища (подаваемая на стол), еда
Note. This meaning is rare in Mod-
ern English. Usually the word
board
(or
cooking)
is used.
Note. Commonly used, stylistically
neutral.
(Cf.
board and lodging, plain
cooking.)
(стол и квартира, простой,
сытный, вегетарианский стол).
4.
a flat slab of stone or board 5.
slabs of stone (with words written
on them or cut into them)
4.
Ср.
плита 5.
Ср.
скрижали
6.
Bibl.
Words cut into slabs of
stone (the ten tables).
6.
Ср.
заповеди
7. an orderly arrangement of facts,
figures, etc.
7.
Ср.
таблица
8. part of a machine-tool
8.
Ср.
планшайба
9. a level area, plateau
9.
Ср.
плато
As can be seen from the above, only one of the meanings and namely
the central meaning ‘a piece of furniture’ may be described as identical.
The denotational meaning ‘the food put on the table’ although existing in
the words of both languages has different connotational components in
each of them. The whole of the semantic structure of these words is alto-
gether different. The difference is still more pronounced if we consider all
the meanings of the Russian word
стол,
e.g. ‘department, section, bureau’
(cf.
адресный стол, стол заказов)
not to be found in the semantic struc-
ture of the word
table.
1.
The problem of polysemy is mainly the
problem of interrelation and interdependence
of the various meanings of the same word. Polysemy viewed diachroni-
cally is a historical change in the semantic structure of the word resulting
in disappearance of some meanings (or) and in new meanings being added
to the ones already existing and also in the rearrangement of these mean-
ings in its semantic structure. Polysemy viewed synchronically is under-
stood as coexistence of the various meanings of the same word at a certain
historical period and the arrangement of these meanings in the semantic
structure of the word.
2. The concepts of central (basic) and marginal (minor) meanings may
be interpreted in terms of their relative frequency in speech. The meaning
having the highest frequency is usually the one representative of the
38
§ 31. Summary
and Conclusions
semantic structure of the word, i.e. synchronically its central (basic)
meaning.
3. As the semantic structure is never static the relationship between
the diachronic and synchronic evaluation of the individual meanings of
the same word may be different in different periods of the historical de-
velopment of language.
4.
The semantic structure of polysemantic words is not homogeneous
as far as the status of individual meanings is concerned. Some meaning (or
meanings) is representative of the word in isolation, others are perceived
only in certain contexts.
5.
The whole of the semantic structure of correlated polysemantic
words of different languages can never be identical. Words are felt as cor-
related if their basic (central) meanings coincide.
POLYSEMY AND HOMONYMY
Words identical in sound-form but different in meaning are tradition-
ally termed homonyms.
Modern English is exceptionally rich in homonymous words and word-
forms. It is held that languages where short words abound have more
homonyms than those where longer words are prevalent. Therefore it is
sometimes suggested that abundance of homonyms in Modern English is
to be accounted for by the monosyllabic structure of the commonly used
English words.
1
When analysing different cases of ho-
monymy we find that some words are ho-
monymous in all their forms, i.e. we observe f u l l homonymy of the
paradigms of two or more different words, e.g., in
seal
1
— ‘a sea animal’
and
seal
2
— ‘a design printed on paper by means of a stamp’. The para-
digm “seal, seal’s, seals, seals’ ” is identical for both of them and gives no
indication of whether it is
seal
1
or
seal
2
, that we are analysing. In other
cases, e.g.
seal
1
— ‘a sea animal’ and (to) seal, — ‘to close tightly’, we
see that although some individual word- forms are homonymous, the
whole of the paradigm is not identical. Compare, for instance, the para-
digms:
seal
1
(to) seal
3
seal
seal
seal’s
seals
seals
sealed
seals’
sealing, etc.
It is easily observed that only some of the word-forms (e.g. seal, seals,
etc.) are homonymous, whereas others (e.g. sealed, sealing) are not. In
such cases we cannot speak of homonymous words but only of
1
Not only words but other linguistic units may be homonymous. Here, however, we
are concerned with the homonymy of words and word-forms only, so we shall not touch
upon the problem of homonymous affixes or homonymous phrases.
39
§ 32. Homonymy of Words
and Homonymy of Word-Forms
homonymy of individual word-forms or of p a r t i a l h o m o n y m y .
This is true of a number of other cases, e.g. compare
find
[faind],
found
[
faund],
found
[faund], and
found
[faund],
founded
['faundid],
founded
['faundid];
know
[nou],
knows
[nouz],
knew
[nju:], and
no
[nou];
nose
[nouz], noses ['nouzis];
new
[nju:] in which partial homonymy is ob-
served.
Consequently all cases of homonymy may be
classified into full and partial homonymy —
i.e. homonymy of words and homonymy of individual word-forms.
The bulk of full homonyms are to be found within the same parts of
speech (e.g.
seal
1
n
— seal
2
n),
partial homonymy as a rule is observed in
word-forms belonging to different parts of speech (e.g.
seal
1
n
—
seal
3
v).
This is not to say that partial homonymy is impossible within one part of
speech. For instance in the case of the two verbs —
lie
[lai] — ‘to be in a
horizontal or resting position’ and He [lai] — ‘to make an untrue state-
ment' — we also find partial homonymy as only two word-forms [lai],
[laiz] are homonymous, all other forms of the two verbs are different.
Cases of full homonymy may be found in different parts of speech too;
e.g.
for [
fo:] — preposition,
for
[fo:] — conjunction and
four
[fo:] —
numeral, as these parts of speech have no other word-forms.
Homonyms may be also classified by the type of meaning into lexical,
lexico-grammatical and grammatical homonyms. In
seal
1
n
and
seal
2
n,
e.g., the part-of-speech meaning of the word and the grammatical mean-
ings of all its forms are identical (cf.
seal
[si:l] Common Case Singular,
seal’s [si:lz] Possessive Case Singular for both
seal
1
and
seal
2
).
The dif-
ference is confined to the lexical meaning only:
seal
1
denotes ‘a sea ani-
mal’, ‘the fur of this animal’, etc.,
seal
2
— ‘a design printed on paper, the
stamp by which the design is made’, etc. So we can say that
seal
2
and
seal
1
are l e x i c a l h o m o n y m s because they differ in lexical
meaning.
If we compare
seal
1
— ‘a sea animal’, and (to)
seal
3
— ‘
to close
tightly, we shall observe not only a difference in the lexical meaning of
their homonymous word-forms but a difference in their grammatical
meanings as well. Identical sound-forms, i.e.
seals
[si:lz] (Common Case
Plural of the noun) and (he)
seals
[si:lz] (third person Singular of the verb)
possess each of them different grammatical meanings. As both grammati-
cal and lexical meanings differ we describe these homonymous word-
forms as l e x i c o - g r a m m a t i c a l .
Lexico-grammatical homonymy generally implies that the homonyms
in question belong to different parts of speech as the part-of-speech mean-
ing is a blend of the lexical and grammatical semantic components. There
may be cases however when lexico-grammatical homonymy is observed
within the same part of speech, e.g., in the verbs (to)
find
[faind] and (to)
found
[faund], where the homonymic word-forms:
found
[faund] — Past
Tense of (to)
find
and
found
[faund] — Present Tense of
(to) found
dif-
fer both grammatically and lexically.
Modern English abounds in homonymic word-forms differing in
grammatical meaning only. In the paradigms of the majority of verbs the
form of the Past Tense is homonymous with the form of Participle II, e.g.
asked
[a:skt] —
asked
[a:skt]; in the paradigm of nouns we usually
40
§ 33. Classification
of Homonyms