Файл: Учебное пособие по английскому языку для практических занятий студентов 2 курса.docx

4. 
   Put in prepositions and translate the sentences.
   

of to on in on in in in

1. 
   Many high technological industries rely __ metrology to translate theoretical science into mass produced reality. 2) With the exception __ few examples, all units of measurements are invented and agreed by people. __ other words, units of measurement are quite arbitrary. 3) In past, communities didn’t have any common benchmarks, which often resulted ___ confusion, inaccuracy and fraud. 4) Today, units of measurement are generally defined __ a scientific basis. 5) Modern measurements are defined ___ relationship ____ internationally standardized reference objects. 6) Many units of measure are defined terms of unique artifacts.
   

5. 
   What are the most common measures used in everyday life?
   

Physical Quantity	Unit Symbol	Physical Quantity	Unit Symbol
Length	Metre m	Time	Second S
Mass	Kilogram Kg	Thermodynamic	Kelvin K
Electric current	Ampere A	Luminous intensity	Candela cd
Amount of substance	Mole mol	Temperature	Kelvin

Quantity	Units
Length	inch (in), feet (ft), yards (yd), miles
Temperature	Kelvin (K), Fahrenheit (F), Celsius (C)
Area	Square Inch, Square Feet, Acre, Square Yard, Square Mile
Volume (Capacity)	Fluid Ounces (fl oz), pint (pt), quarts (qt), gallons (gal)
Weight (Mass)	Ounces, Pounds (lb), Tons

READING

1. 
   Read and translate the text.
   

UNITS AND SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENTS
Measurement seems like a simple concept and on the surface it is just a representation of numbers and their quantifying units. People use the different units of measure so frequently in daily life that their significance sometimes takes backstage. Right from exchange of currency to filling up gas and measuring time, units are practically everywhere! The fundamental theory of measurement of any given quantity helps in determining and assigning a numerical value to it. The need for various systems of measuring values has come from the nature of the property to be measured and the objectivity in quantifying it.

In today's world however there is a strong necessity for uniformity in measuring data. There are primarily two internationally accepted standards of weights and measurements. The English system is based on yards/feet/inches whereas the metric system includes the meter/centimeter/millimeter. At a basic level the metric system is apparently broken down in ratios of 10 units while the English system is based on a system of 12 units.

Thus, the value of standardization in measurement is undeniable. Consistent representation of values is necessary in all areas be it in medicine where a nurse administers a particular drug or in technology where scientists constantly strive to research and reveal experimental data, which again must be depicted with a degree of regularity.

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In the United States, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a division of the United States Department of Commerce, regulates commercial measurements. In the United Kingdom, the role is performed by the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), in Australia by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, in South Africa by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and in India the National Physical Laboratory of India, D.I. Mendeleyev Institute for Metrology (VNIIM) in Russia.

In the science of measurement, a standard is an object, system, or experiment that bears a defined relationship to a unit of measurement of a physical quantity. Standards are the fundamental reference for a system of weights and measures, against which all other measuring devices are compared.

With the exception of a few seemingly fundamental quantum constants, units of measurement are essentially arbitrary; in other words, people make them up and then agree to use them. Nothing inherent in nature dictates that an inch has to be a certain length, or that a mile is a better measure of distance than a kilometer.

Over the course of human history, however, first for convenience and then for necessity, standards of measurement evolved so that communities сould have certain common benchmarks. Laws regulating measurement were originally developed to prevent fraud in commerce.

Historical standards for length, volume, and mass were defined by many different authorities, which resulted in confusion and inaccuracy of measurements. Modern measurements are defined in relationship to internationally standardized reference objects, which are used under carefully controlled laboratory conditions to define the units of length, mass, electrical potential, and other physical quantities.

Today, units of measurement are generally defined, overseen by governmental or supra governmental agencies, and established on a scientific basis in international treaties, pre-eminent of which is the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), established in 1875 by the Treaty of the meter and which oversees the International System of Units (SI) and which has custody of the International Prototype Kilogram. Primary measurement standards may be used strictly in measurement laboratories. Less precisely controlled working standards are used for calibration of industrial measurement equipment.

Primary standards that define units may be inconvenient for everyday use, so working standards represent the primary definition in a form that is easier to use. For example, the definition of the "metre" is based on a laboratory experiment combining the speed of light and the duration of a second, but a machine shop will have working standard gauge blocks that are used for checking its measuring instruments.

Initially many units of measure were defined in terms of unique artifacts which were the legal basis of units of measure. A continuing trend in metrology is to eliminate as many as possible of the artifact standards and instead define practical units of measure in terms of fundamental physical constants, as demonstrated by standardized technique.

Most basic units have already been redefined this way. The meter, for example, was redefined in 1983 by the CGPM as the distance traveled by light in free space in 1⁄299,792,458 of a second while in 1960 the international yard was defined by the governments of the United States, United Kingdom, Australia and South Africa as being exactly 0.9144 metres.

Another example is the unit of electrical potential, the volt. Formerly it was defined in terms of standard cell electrochemical batteries, which limited the stability and precision of the definition. Recently the volt has been defined in terms of the output of a Josephson junction, which bears a direct relationship to fundamental physical constants.

One advantage of elimination of artifact standards is that inter-comparison of artifacts is no longer required. Another advantage is that the system of measures won’t be disrupted by the loss or damage of the artifact standards.

2. 
   Find out the English equivalents in the text for the given words and word-combinations. Use them in sentences of your own.
   

Числовое значение, единообразие, обмен валюты, основываться, стремиться, физическая величина, первоначально, свойство, дюйм, свидетельствовать, квантовый констант, общие ориентиры,

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система мер и весов, точно, ограничивать, мошенничество в торговле, различные органы власти, ликвидация, за исключением, нарушать.

3. 
   Match words with their synonyms.
   

1. essentially a. supervise

2. inherent b. mutual

3. treaty c. racket

4. convenience d. generally

5. benchmark e. eliminate

6. fraud f. comfort

7. common g. milestone

8. custody h. develop

9. oversee i. appropriate

10. evolve j. storage

11. remove k. convention, agreement

4. 
   Match the terms to the definitions.
   

unit of measurement standard gauge (gage) blocks treaty artifact

1) an agreement under international law;

2) a definite magnitude of a physical quantity, defined and adopted by convention or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same physical quantity;

3) the fundamental reference for a system of weights and measures, against which all other measuring devices are compared.

4) a system for producing precision lengths, usually made of metal or ceramic. They can be joined together with very little dimensional uncertainty; can be stacked to create a desired length, for example, 7 mm + 10 mm = 17 mm.

5) an object or a product designed and used by people to meet needs or to solve problems.

5. 
   Based on the text say if the statements are true or false.
   

1. 
   People research the different units of measure so frequently in daily life that their significance sometimes takes backstage.
   
2. 
   There are primarily three internationally accepted standards of weights and measurements.
   
3. 
   The value of standardization in measurement is undeniable.
   
4. 
   Standards are the fundamental reference for a system of weights and measures.
   
5. 
   Metrologists deny units of measurement and then agree to use them.
   
6. 
   The definition of the "metre" is based on a laboratory experiment combining the speed of light and the duration of a second, but a machine shop will have working standard gauge blocks that are used for checking its measuring instruments.
   
7. 
   The meter was redefined in 1985 by the CGPM.
   
8. 
   The volt has been defined in terms of the output of a Josephson junction, which bears a direct relationship to fundamental physical constants.
   

6. 
   Answer the following question according to the text.
   

1) Why are units of measurements quite arbitrary?

2) What were standards originally established for?

3) How did people historically try to establish standards?

4) What is the main treaty in which modern standards are defined?

5) Why do modern metrologists try to eliminate unique artifacts? What are the advantages of this trend? What are the artifacts changed with? Give some examples.

6) What’s the difference between primary and secondary standards? Which are more precise? Which are more convenient?
7. Prepare the retelling of the text.
SPEAKING

1. Match the lines. Pay attention to prepositions.

1. The level of traceability determines whether the result of a measurement can be compared 2. This job requires experience 3. There are many laboratories dedicated 4. The alignment of modern building equipment is based 5. This prospective specialist matriculated

a) to other measurements. b) in operation of X-ray spectroscopy. c) to testing products. d) on optical measurements e) from an accredited metrology program.

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2. 
   Match the units of measurement to their symbols. Guess, which unit of measurement do the following descriptions refer to?
   

s cd g k mol

1. It was originally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic centimeter of water at 4°C.

2. It is often used in conjunction with the degree Celsius, which has the same magnitude.

3. It is "the constant current that will produce an attractive force of 2 × 10– 7 newton per metre of length between two straight, parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible circular cross section placed one metre apart in a vacuum".

4. It is the only SI unit that is still directly defined by an artifact rather than a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. Its International Prototype was commissioned bythe General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) under the authority of the Metre Convention (1875).

5. It is widely used in chemistry instead of units of mass or volume as a convenient way to express amounts of reactants or of products of chemical reactions.

6. A common candle emits light with a luminous intensity of roughly one of it.

7. It is defined in terms of a frequency which is naturally emitted by caesium atoms.

8. As a reproducible standard, it was defined by an international conference of electricians in Paris in 1884 as the resistance of a mercury column of specified weight and 106 cm long.
3.Match the word combinations and their Russian equivalents.

1. graduated	a. scale	1) градуированная шкала
2. counter	b. weight	2) противовес
3. balance	c. beam	3) балансир
4. deflection	d. of a pointer	4) отклонение стрелки
5. environmental	e. conditions	5) условия окружающей среды
6. equilibrium	f. position	6) положение равновесия
7. standard	g. practice	7) общепринятая практика
8. scale	i. list of operations	8) деления шкалы
9. sequential	i. list of operations	9) список последовательных операций
10. vernier	j. caliper	10) штангенциркуль
11. level	k. of accuracy	11) уровень точности

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4. 
   Play over the group. Name units of measurement one after another. The winner is the person who has named the most.
   

GRAMMAR REVIEW

NUMERALS

Количественные числительные (Cardinal Numerals)
1 — one 2 — two 3 — three 4 — four 5 — five 6 — six 7 — seven 8 — eight 9 — nine 10 — ten 101 — a (one) hundred and one 200 — two hundred	11 — eleven 12 — twelve 13 — thirteen 14 — fourteen 15 — fifteen 16 — sixteen 17 — seventeen 18 — eighteen 19 — nineteen 20 — twenty 1,000 — a (one) thousand 2,000 — two thousand	21 — twenty-one 22 — twenty-two, …, 30 — thirty 40 — forty 50 — fifty 60 — sixty 70 — seventy 80 — eighty 90 — ninety 100 — a (one) hundred 100,000 — a (one) hundred thousand 1,000,000 — a (one) million
Порядковые числительные (Ordinal Numerals)
1st — first 2nd — second 3rd — third 4th — fourth 5th — fifth 6th — sixth 7th — seventh 8th — eighth 9th — ninth 10th — tenth	11th — eleventh 12th — twelfth 13th — thirteenth 14th — fourteenth 15th — fifteenth 16th — sixteenth 17th — seventeenth 18th — eighteenth 19th — nineteenth 20th — twentieth	21st — twenty first, …, 30th — thirtieth 40th — fortieth 50th — fiftieth 60th — sixtieth 70th — seventieth 80th — eightieth 90th — ninetieth 100th — a (one) hundredth
Дроби (Fractional Numerals)
Простые (Common Fractions)	1/2 — a (one) half 1/3 — one third 2/5 ton => two fifths of a ton ½ kilometre => half a kilometre. ⅔ kilogram (two thirds of a kilogram) 2/3 of an apple	2/5 — two fifths 2 3/7 — two and three sevenths 2 ¼ — two and a fourth
Десятичные (Decimal Fractions)	0.3 — nought (zero) point three (point three) 0.01 — nought point nought one / point nought one 2.35 — two point three five (thirty-five) 32.305 — three two (thirty-two) point three zero (nought) five

Addition 2 + 2 = 4 Two and two are four. Two plus two equals four.	Subtraction 4 – 2 = 2 Two from four are two. Four minus two equals two
Multiplication 2 ∙ 2 = 4 Two multiplied by two is four. Two times two equals four.	Division 6 : 2 = 3 Six divided by two equals three.

1. 
   Read the following numerals.
   

5; 9; 12; 13; 17; 18; 20; 26; 66; 93; 128; 251; 389; 1,264; 2,561; 1,001; 10,508; 20,387
2. Choose the correct form.

1. My daughter is still a teenager. She is only fifteen/fifty.

2. He knew it was a painting worth $10 million/millions.

3. Three hundred/Three hundreds people gathered at the stadium.

4. In the section 2/section 2 we also suggest other topics that need to be researched.

5. The first battle of the American Revolution was fought in year/the year 1775.

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